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PAYSON,  DUiNTON,  &  SCRIBNER 


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J.  W.  PAYSON,  S.  DUXTON,  W.  M.  SCRIBNER,  G.  H.  SHATTUCK, 

A.  S.  AT  ANSON. 


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POTTER,    AINSWORTH,  AND   COMPANY, 
NEW   YORK   AND   CHICAGO. 


EDUCATION  DSPT. 


Entered  acceding  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1873,  by 

WOOLWORTH,   AlNSWORTH,    &    COMPANY, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington 


c 


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t  .  •  . 

I     I      I  •  I  , 

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,V*  Z  h  : 
Xa»*:  A  very.  dr»  Co.,  Stereotypers  and  Printers. 


OW 


PREFACE. 


Our  object  in  this  Manual  is  to  present  to  the  teachers  of 
our  public  schools  and  seminaries  a  strictly  practical  hand-book 
on  the  art  of  teaching  penmanship.  We  have  severely  ab- 
stained from  all  fine  poetic  flights,  and  even  from  the  discus- 
sion of  mooted  points ;  and  have  simply  aimed  to  present  the 
condensed  results  ©f  the  actual  experience  of  the  authors  of 
the  Payson,  Dunton,  and  Scribner's  system  of  penmanship 
with  scholars  in  public  and  private  schools  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land. 

It  is  not  intended  for  '*  business-colleges,"  where  the  stu- 
dents practise  writing  two  or  three  hours  every  day,  and 
where  the  teachers  are  supposed  to  be  professional  penmen,  — 
though  we  think  even  they  will  find  some  useful  hints,  — but 
for  the  schools  in  which  writing  forms  only  one  of  the  many 
branches  of  instruction,  which  are  all  to  be  taught  by  one  per- 
son. 

The  instructions  given  in  the  copy-books  themselves  are  so 
full,  that,  if  faithfully  followed,  they  can  hardly  fail  of  in- 
suring satisfactory  results.  Still  so  many  teachers  desire  to 
have  a  brief  and  comprehensive  text-book  on  the  subject,  that 
it  seems  desirable  to  furnish  one  meeting  the  wants  of  all  who 
teach  writing,  but  especially  adapted  to  our  series  of  copy- 
books. 

Ml.18287 


in 


IV  PREFACE. 

The  table  of  contents  will  enable  the  teacher  to  see  how  com- 
plete is  our  treatment  of  the  subject,  —  better  than  any  enu- 
meration of  topics  we  could  here  present.  Yet  there  are  one 
or  two  points  to  which  we  would  invite  particular  attention. 
One  is  the  method  of  instruction  in  which  we  have  presented 
the  true,  because  the  scientific,  form  of  all  teaching  applied  to 
this  art.  Another  is  the  illustrations  for  bringing  peculiar 
difficulties  before  the  scholars  on  the  blackboard.  Also  the 
critical  points  of  the  principles  and  letters  which  embrace 
those  features  which  are  essential  in  each  case.  The  value  of 
these  can  hardly  be  over-estimated,  as  they  are  the  result  of 
philosophical  observation,  and  have  been  confirmed  by  a  vast 
experience.  Once  more :  it  will  be  observed,  that,  in  this 
Manual,  every  point  of  importance  is  not  only  treated  of  in 
the  text,  but  is  fully  presented  to  the  eye  by  illustrations. 

In  conclusion,  we  wish  to  say  a  few  words  on  a  widely-pre- 
vailing error.  Every  new  system  which  makes  its  appearance, 
and  some  of  the  old  ones,  base  their  claims  for  adoption  on 
the  statement,  that  their  peculiar  methods  will  turn  out  busi- 
ness-penmen from  the  schools.  It  is,  perhaps,  a  pity  that 
they  do  not  point  out  some  average  school,  where  only  the 
average  time  is  given  to  writing,  in  which  the  majority  of  the 
scholars  prove  their  assertions.  It  is  further  said,  that  it  is 
an  "  oft-repeated  remark  of  merchants,  that,  when  boys  come 
from  the  public  schools  to  the  counting-room,  their  handwrit- 
ing is  impracticable,  and  soon  undergoes  an  entire  change." 
The  merchants  do  not  say  that  the  writing  is  bad,  but  that  it 
is  "  impracticable."  It  "  soon  undergoes  an  entire  change," 
in  which  developed  state  we  presume  it  is  entirely  satisfactory. 
Observe  the  word    "soon."     It  tells    the  whole    story.     The 


PREFACE.  V 

change  takes  place,  and  that  almost  immediately,  simply  be- 
cause there  is  constant  practice ;  and  this  concurs  with  tho 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  forms  and  previous  training  in 
movement,  which  only  left  the  hand  "impracticable"  from 
lack  of  the  element  which  is  now  supplied.  Let  a  lad  who 
has  never  had  the  admirable  discipline  in  writing  which  is 
now  given  in  all  our  large  public  schools  enter  the  merchant's 
office,  and  we  fancy  his  "soon,"  as  related  to  the  acquisition  of 
a  business-style,  will  be  prolonged  to  a  very  indefinite  period. 

Is  it  really  considered  how  short  a  time  is  generally  given 
to  this  branch  in  our  schools?  One  hour  and  a  half  a  week 
is  a  fair  average.  Suppose  the  schools  to  be  in  session  forty- 
two  weeks :  that  gives  sixty-three  hours,  —  ten  days  of  six 
hours  each  in  the  whole  year  to  learn  writing.  Suppose,  fur- 
ther, that  the  scholar  enters  at  eight,  and  leaves  at  fourteen  ; 
and  the  enormous  time  devoted  to  learning  writing  is  six  times 
ten  such  days !  In  a  business-college,  they  write,  during  the 
fall  and  winter,  three  hours  a  day ;  that  is,  a  third  more  in 
one  month,  when  their  age  is  from  eighteen  to  twenty-five, 
than  our  children  from  eight  to  fourteen  do  in  a  whole  year ! 
It  is  time  that  this  error  was  exploded. 

We  shall,  therefore,  continue  in  the  belief,  that  if  true 
movements  are  carefully  inculcated,  and  the  scholars  are  thor- 
oughly drilled  in  the  knowledge  and  execution  of  the  exact 
forms  of  the  letters,  a  sure  foundation  is  laid  for  the  develop- 
ment of  a  fine  business-hand,  as  soon  as  sufficient  practice  af- 
fords the  opportunity.  At  the  same  time,  we  know  from  ex- 
perience that  those  who  have  a  natural  aptitude  for  writing 
—  the  artistic  faculty  —  will  acquire  a  business-hand  even 
while  at  school. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGB. 

Introductory  Remarks.        .                         1 

Method  of  Instruction .        .  2 

Method  of  imparting  Knowledge 3 

Method  of  teaching  Execution 5 

Method  of  teaching  Criticism 5 

Necessary  Materials  in  a  Writing-Class        .        .        .        .11 

Organizing  Classes 15 

The  Lesson 17 

Opening  and  Closing  an  Exercise 18 

Position 19 

Penholding 23 

Rests 26 

Movements 27 

Counting .        .  31 

Movement  Exercises 33 

Spacing 36 

Shading 38 

Theory  of  Penmanship. — Analysis 41 

Classification  of   Letters 42 

Scale  of  Proportions 43 

Definitions  of  Terms  and  Forms 44 

Elements  and  Principles 47 

Formation  of  Elements,  Principles,  and  Letters  ...  52 

Figures 93 

On  teaching  Sentences 94 

vi 


CONTENTS. 


Vli 


Difficult  Combinations 

Business  Penmanship 

Marks,  Signs,  amd  Abbreviations 

Variety  of  Capitals 

Off-Hand  Capitals 

Ladies'  Hand 


page. 
96 
96 
102 
103 
104 
105 


CUTS  AND  PLATES. 


Position     ....... 

Penholding 

Movement  Exercises,  Small  Letters 

"  "  Capitals   . 

Analysis  and  Classification  of  Letters 
Variety  of  Capitals.  Plate  II.,  III.,  IV 
Off-Hand  Capitals.  Plate  V.,  VI.  . 
Ladies'  Hand.  Plate  VII.  . 
Roman  Letters  analyzed.  Plate  VIII. 
Italic  Print.     Plate  IX. 

Egyptian.     Plate  IX 

Skeleton.     Plate  X 

Brush  Letters.     Plate  X.    . 
Marking  Letters.     Plate  XI. 
Old  English.     Plate  XII.      . 
Cikrman  Text.     Plate  XII.    . 
Text-Hand  for  Ladies.     Plate  XIII. 


Plate  I. 


21 

25 

34 

35 

42 

103 

104 

105 

107 

108 

109 

110 

110 

109 

110 

111 

112 


SPECIAL  INDEX  FOE  TEACHERS. 


DEFINITIONS. 

PAGl 

Dot 40,  44 

Line,  —  Straight,  Upright,  Slanting 44 

Curve,  —  Right  Curve,  Left  Curve 44 

"Wave-Line,  Double  Curve       .        .        .        .        .        .45 

Base-Line 45 

Top  Line .45 

Up-Stroke,  Down-Stroke 45 

Main  Lines,  Connecting  Lines 45 

Parallel  Lines 45 

Similar  Curves 45 

Slant ...      45 

Upper  Angle,  Lower  Angle 45 

Upper  Turn,  Lower  Turn 46 

Space  in  Height,  Space  in  Width         ....      46 

Short  Letters 46 

Stem-Letters 46 

Looped  Stems .46 

Oval,  —  Direct.  Indirect  .  •        •        .         .         .46 

viii 


SPECIAL  INDEX  FOE  TEACHERS. 


THE    FIVE    ELEMENTS. 

PAGE, 

Element  I.  —  Slanting  Straight  Line    .         .         .         .44,  49,  52 
"         II.  —  Lower  Turn 46,  49,  55 

III.  —  Right  Curve 44,  49,  54 

IV.  —  Left  Curve 44,  49,  55 

V.  — Upper  Turn 46,50,57 


THE  SIX  PRINCIPLES  OP  THE  SMALL  LETTERS. 


First  Principle 

Second      " 

Third 

Eourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 


Upper  Looped  Stem 
Lower  Looped  Stem 


50,  55 
50,  57 
50,  58 
50,  61 
46,  51.  70 
46,  51,  73 


THE    THREE    PRINCIPLES    OF    THE    CAPITALS. 

Seventh  Principle,  —  Capital  Stem     . 
Eighth  "  Direct  Oval       . 

Ninth  "  Indirect  Oval     . 


Signals,  —  Opening  and  Closing  an  Exercise 
Marks,  —  Ranking  the  Scholars 


.  45, 

51, 

75 

.  46, 

51, 

85 

.  46, 

61, 

89 

1 
1 

• 
• 

19 
9 

SPECIAL  INDEX  FOR  TEACHERS. 


STANDARD  LETTERS,  COMMON-SCHOOL 


COURSE. 


CAPITALS. 


SMALL   LETTERS. 


A 
B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 

O 

P 

Q 

R 

S 

T 

U 

V 

W 

X 

Y 

Z 


PAGE. 

.  76 


83 
89 
86 
87 
79 
84 
79 
81 
82 
80 
81 
77 
77 
85 
82 
91 
84 
80 
78 
92 
92 
91 
90 
93 
91 


a 
b 
c 
d 
e 
f 

g 
h 
i 

• 

J 
k 

1 

m 

n 

o 

P 

q 

r 

s 
t 
u 

V 

w 

X 

y 

z 


PAGE. 

.   61 


72 

62 
67 
63 
72 
74 
71 
56 
74 
71 
72 
59 
59 
61 
68 
69 
64 
65 
66 
57 
59 
60 
59 
74 
74 


MANUAL  OF  PENMANSHIP. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

Our  aim  in  this  system  is  to  teach  the  scholars  of  the 
public  and  private  schools  of  our  country  a  practical  hand- 
writing. To  do  this,  we  supply  a  carefully-graduated  series  of 
Copy-Books,  with  special  directions  at  the  head  of  the  page,  and 
further  instructions  on  the  covers ;  this  Manual,  for  those  who 
wish  complete  information  as  to  our  method;  and  Blackboard 
Tablets,  exhibiting  the  accurate  forms  of  the  letters  and  the 
more  prominent  features  of  their  analysis,  of  sufficiently  large 
size  to  present  to  a  class. 

The  use  of  copy-books  with  lithographed  copies  at  the  head 
of  the  page  has  very  great  advantages.  It  economizes  the 
time  of  the  teacher ;  prevents  change  of  hand  should  the 
teacher  be  changed;  gives  a  better  system,  the  result  of  a 
larger  and  more  varied  experience  than  is  possible  to  an  indi- 
vidual ;  and  causes  a  very  trifling  increase  of  expense.  Hence 
such  copies  are  now  almost  universally  used ;  and,  where  once 
adopted,  are  never  superseded. 


MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 


METHOD    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

Under  this  head  we  present  the  fundamental  principles  on 
which  the  teaching  of  penmanship  must  depend. 

Writing  is  the  correct  representation  of  certain  forms  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  arbitrary,  generally  by  means  of  an 
instrument  held  in  the  hand. 

Our  method,  therefore,  naturally  ranges  itself  under  these 
three  grand  divisions  in  their  order :  first,  Knowledge ; 
second,  Execution ;  third,  Criticism.  There  is  something 
to  be  done,  and  there  must  be  a  best  way  of  doing  it :  both 
these  must  be  known.  The  doing  follows.  And  then  the 
questions  immediately  arise,  Is  it  correctly  done  ?  and,  Was  it 
done  in  the  best  manner  ?  These  are  answered  by  criticis- 
ing. 

Knowledge.  —  Teachers  and  scholars,  therefore,  should 
know  exactly,  — 

I.  What  the  proposed  work  itself  really  is ;  that  is,  the 
Matter  to  be  Executed. 

II.  How  to  execute  the  proposed  work ;  that  is,  the  Man- 
ner of  Executing. 

I.  The  Matter  to  be  Executed.  — This  embraces  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  (1.)  Of  the  elements ;  (2.)  Of  the  six  prin- 
ciples of  the  small  letters  and  of  the  three  principles  of  the 
capitals,  and  of  their  connection  to  form  letters ;  (3.)  Of  the 
distinction  between  main  and  connecting  lines,  and  of  turns 
and  angles ;  (4.)  Of  the  peculiarities  arising  from  the  com- 
bination of  letters  in  words.  These  are  all  separately  treated 
in  their  proper  place. 

II.  The  Manner  of  Executing.  —  This  involves  a  correct 
knowledge  (1.)  Of  the  position  of  the  body,  of  the  arms  and 
the  hands,  and  of  the  books ;  (2.)  Of  penholding ;  (3.)  Of 
the  rests ;  (4.)  Of  the  movements.  All  these  will  be  found 
treated  of  at  length  under  their  respective  heads. 


METHOD    OF    INSTRUCTION.  3 


METHOD   OF   IMPARTING   KNOWLEDGE. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  What  is  the  best  method  of 
imparting  this  knowledge?     AVe  answer, — 

First,  With  regard  to  the  Matter  to  be  Executed. 

1.  The  teacher  must  himself  know  what  is  to  be  done,  and 
how  it  is  to  be  done. 

There  is  no  better  way  for  him  to  learn  this  than  by  taking 
the  book  his  scholars  are  to  use,  and  writing  it  himself  in 
advance  from  day  to  day.  His  own  writing  will  be  improved, 
and  he  will  acquire  a  lively  appreciation  of  the  number  of 
minute  points  which  require  attention,  and  of  the  difficulties 
to  be  encountered. 

Let  him  also  study  the  directions  and  explanations  of  this 
Manual,  pen  in  hand.  Many  a  statement,  which,  if  merely 
read,  would  obtain  little  if  any  appreciation,  will  be  found  to 
be  of  great  importance  if  subjected  at  once  to  the  test  of 
experiment. 

Having  thus  qualified  himself,  however  poor  a  writer  he 
may  be,  he  will  come  before  his  class  with  confidence. 

2.  He  should  elicit  from  his  class  by  questions  all  that  they 
can  discover  by  observation  of  the  copy  and  from  the  instruc- 
tions at  the  head  of  the  page,  and  should  tell  them  the  critical 
points,  which  will  be  found  in  this  Manual  in  the  description 
of  the  letters. 

It  is  an  excellent  rule  never  to  tell  them  any  thing  they  can 
find  out  for  themselves.  They  will  thus  be  trained  to  habits 
of  careful  observation,  —  the  true  method  of  acquiring  the 
foundations  of  all  knowledge. 

3.  He  should  use  the  blackboard  freely. 

Let  him  rule  the  lines  on  the  board  corresponding  to  the 
copy,  using  red  as  well  as  white  chalk  if  convenient.  Then 
require  the  class  to  dictate  the  copy  to  him,  doing  exactly 
what  they  tell  him.  This  shows  them  the  necessity  of  exact 
knowledge. 


4  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

Next  give  the  illustrations  which  will  be  found  in  the 
description  of  the  letters,  and  call  attention  especially  to  the 
critical  points.  The  latter  should  be  impressed  on  their  minds 
tiii  they  are  thoroughly  familiar  and  can  be  readily  stated. 

4.  The  forms  and  critical  points  of  the  principles  should  be 
fixed  on  their  minds. 

(1.)  By  example.  —  Let  them  be  drawn  correctly  on  the 
board. 

(2.)  By  contrast.  —  Let  the  opposite  be  drawn. 

(3.)  By  comparison.  —  Let  erroneous  forms  be  made ;  not 
all  possible  ones,  but  those  that  illustrate  the  various  points 
in  the  description,  especially  the  critical  points. 

Remark.  —  It  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind,  that  a  clear 
mental  conception  of  the  form  to  be  written  is  an  absolute 
necessity  before  it  can  be  easily  and  correctly  executed. 

And,  further,  it  should  be  remembered  that  time  and  varied 
presentation  are  necessary  to  enable  the  mind  to  form  the 
required  conception. 

The  use  of  our  Blackboard  Tablets  will  also  be  found  ex- 
tremely advantageous.     They  are  described  in  another  place. 

Secondly,  With  regard  to  the  Manner  of  Executing,  we 
would  suggest,  — 

1.  That  the  teacher  should  show  it  by  example. 

Let  him  take  a  large  book,  —  a  geography,  for  instance,  — 
and  place  his  right  arm  and  hand  on  it  in  the  correct  position, 
with  the  pen  properly  held.  Let  the  scholars  view  this  on  all 
sides.     In  the  same  way,  let  the  movements  be  illustrated. 

2.  That  the  scholars  should  learn  it  by  experiment. 

For  instance,  it  is  directed  that  the  corner  of  the  thumb 
should  be  opposite  the  first  joint  of  the  middle  finger,  and  a 
little  under  the  holder;  and  it  is  stated  that  the  object  of  this  is 
to  keep  the  holder  above  the  knuckle.  Let  them  try  with  the 
thumb  at  the  end  of  the  fingers,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the 
least  pressure  on  the  pen  causes  the  holder  to  sink  down.  A 
like  result  follows  if  the  thumb  is  placed  at  the  side  of  the 
holder,  instead  of  underneath  it. 


METHOD    OF   INSTRUCTION.  5 

The  scholar,  thus  proving  the  facts  by  experience,  will  see 
the  value  of  the  directions  given,  and  remember  them ;  for  he 
will  perceive  that  they  are  not  mere  arbitrary  rules,  made  and 
enforced  to  gratify  a  fancy,  but  that  they  teach  the  best  and 
most  convenient  way  of  attaining  certain  necessary  ends. 

METHOD  OF  TEACHING  EXECUTION. 

With  regard  to  teaching  Execution,  it  may  be  worth  while  t<> 
make  a  few  observations. 

1.  Let  the  teacher  determine  that  he  will  have  correct  exe- 
cution ;  that  the  precise  forms  of  the  copy  shall  be  accurately 
made,  not  merely  by  the  few  who  have  natural  aptitude,  but 
by  all.     This  can  be  achieved;  for  it  has  been  again  and  again. 

2.  It  will  be  well  also  to  settle  in  the  mind  that  correct- 
ness of  form  is  preferable  to  mere  rapidity  of  execution. 

Therefore  let  the  scholars  proceed  very  slowly  at  first.  As 
soon  as  the  forms  are  correctly  made,  they  may  then  advance 
more  rapidly,  but  not  faster  than  is  consistent  with  accuracy. 

3.  Whilst  they  are  writing,  let  their  attention  be  frequently 
called  to  position,  penholding,  rests,  and  movements. 

Remark.  —  It  is  very  important  that  they  should  aim  at 
writing  successively  the  principles  of  which  the  letters  are 
composed,  instead  of  writing  the  letters  as  wholes. 

They  should  understand  that  the  modern  style  is  based 
upon  the  oblique  straight  line  and  very  short  turns,  formed  by 
an  up-and-down  or  forward-and-backward  movement  of  the 
pen,  whether  this  is  produced  by  the  fingers  or  by  the  fore- 
arm. This  movement  should  be  dwelt  upon  to  overcome  the 
tendency  to  rounded  down-strokes  and  "  scooping  "  turns. 

METHOD    OF   TEACHING    CRITICISM. 

With  regard  to  the  art  of  Criticism,  we  remark,  — 
1.  The  scholars  should  learn  this  art,  and  practise  it  them- 
selves. 


b  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

Experience  has  long  shown,  that  whatever  any  one  will  do 
for  us  we  are  seldom  inclined  to  do  for  ourselves.  If,  then, 
the  teacher  criticises  for  the  scholars,  they  will  not  consider  it 
their  business  to  do  so  for  themselves. 

It  is,  besides,  a  very  difficult  thing  to  judge  our  own  work 
fairly;  and  to  children,  especially  beginners,  their  own  writ- 
ing seems  so  wonderful,  that  they  cannot  .help  thinking  it 
excellent.  The  fact  that  they  can  actually  read  it,  and  that  it 
can  be  read  by  others,  confirms  them  in  this  idea. 

Therefore  the  formation  by  them  of  the  habit  of  criticism  — 
that  is,  the  training  and  constant  exercise  of  the  faculty  of 
judging  form  —  is  of  the  highest  consequence ;  in  fact,  it  is 
one  of  the  great  secrets  of  success.  A  great  many  scholars  at 
first,  judging  from  our  own  experience,  cannot  distinguish 
between  a  straight  line  and  a  curve,  or  between  the  right  and 
left  curves :  all  varieties  of  slant  are  equally  satisfactory ;  and 
a  turn  is  a  turn,  whether  it  is  as  sharp  as  a  knife,  or  as  round 
as  a  hoop.  * 

They  must  be  trained,  then,  by  every  means  to  improve  the 
deficient  faculty,  and  to  acquire  the  habit  of  always  criticising 
their  own  work.  It  is  very  curious  to  observe  how  much  more 
readily  and  accurately  they  will  criticise  any  erroneous  form 
the  teacher  puts  on  the  board  than  they  will  their  own. 

2.  Teach  them  to  criticise,  therefore,  by  questioning  them 
successively  on  each  particular  of  their  knowledge.  It  will  be 
found  desirable  to  take  up  the  Critical  Points  first ;  afterwards 
to  go  through  the  particulars  of  the  letter  in  order. 

Suppose  a  line  written,  the  following  questions  should  be 
asked :  — 

(1.)  What  are  the  critical  points  of  the  principle,  or  letter  ? 
Which  is  the  first? 

(2.)  How  many  scholars  have  this  right  ? 

Remark.  —  Instead  of  putting  the  question  in  these 
words,  it  is  better  to  make  it  more  definite.  Thus,  supposing 
the  critical  point  to  be  that  the  down-stroke  should  be  straight, 
the  question  should  be,  How  many  made  it  straight  ? 


METHOD    OF   INSTRUCTION.  7 

(3.)   How  many  have  it  wrong? 

Remark.  —  This  question  should,  in  the  case  just  men- 
tioned, take  the  shape,  How  many  did  not  make  it  straight? 

(4.)   What  was  the  cause  of  the  failure? 

Remark.  —  In  the  case  mentioned,  the  answer  would  be, 
perhaps,  Turning  too  soon. 

(5.)   How  can  it  be  corrected? 

Remark.  —  It  is  not  enough  to  discover  the  fault.  They 
must  know  what  to  do  to  make  the  desired  change. 

(6.)   What,  then,  are  you  going  to  do  next  time? 

Remark.  — This  leads  them  to  a  definite  object  in  writing 
the  next  line. 

Another  line  should  then  be  written,  when  the  questioning 
should  be  thus  resumed  :  — 

(7.)  How  many  have  it  right  now  ? 

(8.)   How  many  still  have  it  wrong? 

(9.)   How  many  have  it  better  ? 

The  teacher  can  also  show  on  the  board  how  the  error  was 
made,  and  what  must' be  done  to  correct  it. 

Line  after  line  is  thus  written  and  criticised,  and  thus  each 
with  a  definite  purpose. 

3.  Another  excellent  method  is,  as  soon  as  a  line  is  written, 
to  ask,  How  many  can  point  out  a  fault?  One  after  another 
may  be  called  upon  to  state  the  one  he  discovers ;  and  all  who 
observe  a  similar  fault  should  raise  their  hands  to  acknowledge 
it  when  it  is  mentioned.  The  question  should  follow,  What 
must  be  done  to  correct  it  ? 

This  method  may  be  varied  by  telling  them  to  write  an- 
other line,  and  leave  out  the  faults  they  have  noticed  without 
asking  what  they  are.  The  question  may  then  be  put,  How 
many  have  written  better  than  before  ?  When  the  hands  a^e 
raised,  ask  in  what  particulars  they  have  made  it  better. 

4.  We  consider  this  method  of  teaching  them  to  criticise 
their  own  work  as  of  the  very  highest  importance;  but  it  will 
still  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  move  constantly,  about 
among  them,  to  observe  whether  they  criticise  correctly,  and  to 
aid  their  immature  judgments  by  his  own  remarks. 


8  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

We  would  suggest,  that,  whenever  he  discovers  a  fault,  he 
should  embody  it  in  a  question  to  the  whole  class ;  for  there 
are  sure  to  be  several  other  scholars  who  have  made  the  same 
mistake.     He  thus  saves  himself  the  labor  of  many  repetitions. 

5.  Criticism  should  not  contemplate  merely  the  discovery  of 
an  error,  but  also  the  causes  of  failure,  and  the  precise  direc- 
tion that  the  effort  to  correct  it  must  take. 

6.  Our  critical  points  and  our  analyses  of  the  principles 
enable  the  teacher  to  bring  the  knowledge  of  them  before  his 
class  in  an  orderly  manner,  and  suggest  the  proper  succession 
of  questions  in  criticism. 

The  order  may  be  as  follows  :  — 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  main  lines  in  their  several 
particulars  of  straightness,  slant,  and  height. 

(2.)  The  turns  as  to  their  shape  and  width. 

(3.)  The  connecting  lines  as  to  their  curve  and  slant, 
determining  width. 

(4.)   The  connections. 

7.  A  simple  yet  exhaustive  rule  for  the  teacher's  guidance 
in  criticising  is  this,  —  that  the  errors  may  always  be  looked  for 
on  each  side  of  the  truth.  Is  a  line  to  be  curved  ?  —  it  will  be 
curved  the  wrong  way,  too  much  or  too  little.  Is  a  turn  of  a 
certain  width  to  be  made  ?  —  it  will  be  too  broad  or  too  narrow. 
Is  a  line  to  be  of  a  certain  slant  ?  —  it  will  be  slanted  too  much 
or  too  little. 

8.  Lastly,  the  teacher  should  rank  the  copy  of  every 
scholar,  at  the  close  or  beginning  of  each  exercise,  or  at  the 
commencement  of  the  next,  according  to  its  merit. 

There  are  some  advantages  in  preferring  the  commencement 
of  the  exercise,  because  the  work  is  no  longer  so  fresh  a  pro- 
duction of  the  scholar's,  and  he  will  therefore  more  candidly 
admit  its  faults :  also  because  the  criticism  you  make  will  be 
more  immediately  of  use. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  exercise,  then,  we  would  have 
the  books  opened  where  they  last  wrote  ;  and  then,  going  back- 
ward down  the  first  aisle,  we  would  place  with   a  lead  pencil, 


METHOD    OF    INSTRUCTION.  9 

at  the  bottom  of  the  last  column  written,  a  number  wnich 
should  mark  its  merit.  Suppose  6  was  adopted  for  excellent ; 
then  5,  good ;  4,  middling ;   3,  poor ;  2,  bad ;  1,  very  bad. 

The  marks  should  be  determined  by  the  scholar's  attention 
to  and  execution  of  the  instruction  specially  given  in  the 
lesson  on  the  copy  and  in  previous  lessons,  and  not  merely  for 
general  appearance ;  for  some  copies,  through  fineness  of  lines, 
and  accuracy  of  slant,  will  present  a  good  appearance,  while 
the  turns  are  broad,  connections  bad,  and  so  forth. 

Our  habit  is  to  mark  right  and  left  as  we  go  backwards 
down  the  first  aisle,  and  the  same  as  we  come  forwards  up  the 
third,  and  so  on.  Make  your  decision  rapidly,  and  mark  at 
once.  A  class  of  fifty  or  sixty  may  be  thus  ranked  in  two  or 
three  minutes.     It  is  time  well  employed. 

At  the  same  time  that  you  make  the  mark,  you  can  drop  a 
word  of  criticism;  for  instance,  Turns  too  broad,  Bad  slant, 
Down-strokes  not  straight,  and  so  forth. 

Now,  it  seems  that  it  would  be  a  convenience  to  the  teacher 
to  remember  at  the  next  lesson  what  this  criticism  was,  that 
he  may  observe  whether  it  has  been  heeded.  We  have  there- 
fore devised  the  following  simple  and  convenient  plan  by 
which  he  can  place  it  on  record.  Certain  significant  signs 
easy  of  execution  are  placed  beside  the  merit-marks,  or  where 
the  fault  occurs  in  the  writing. 

The  meaning  of  these  should  be  explained  to  the  scholars. 

/    Too  heavy. 

\    Bad  slant.     The  mark  slants  the  wrong  way. 

—   Wrong  spacing.     The  mark  indicates  width. 

X    Beginning  or  ending  wrong. 

||    Height  not  uniform. 

=   Width  of  letters  uneven. 

•~s   w    Upper  or  lower  turns  too  broad. 

A   V  Upper  or  lower  turns  too  narrow. 

(     )   Curve  instead  of  straight  line. 

S  Element  I.  neglected  in  Principle  3. 

X    T  Connection  too  long  above  or  below. 


10  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

A  profitable  way  to  use  these  is  to  mark  one  of  them  above 
a  column,  without  saying  any  thing,  as  you  go  round  and 
observe  a  fault.  It  can  be  done  rapidly,  is  a  standing  warning 
to  the  scholar,  and  is  a  permanent  record  of  your  criticism. 

We  merely  throw  out  these  suggestions.  Every  teacher  can 
modify,  extend,  or  abbreviate  them,  as  he  pleases ;  or  he  can 
adopt  some  similar  method. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  where  so  many  minute 
points  require  attention,  as  is  the  case  in  learning  to  write, 
the  great  secret  of  success  lies  in  confining  the  attention  to 
one  point  at  a  time.  Thus,  to  make  the  right  use  of  the  cor- 
ners of  the  boxes,  to  touch  the  top  and  base  lines,  to  make 
straight  down-strokes,  to  have  correct  slant,  to  place  the  down- 
strokes  at  correct  distances,  to  make  fine  lines,  and  so  forth, 
should  be  taken  up  in  turn,  and  perfected,  by  devoting  several 
lines  to  each,  fixing  attention  on  it,  criticising  it,  and  correct- 
ing as  we  have  suggested. 

If,  in  this  statement  of  our  method  of  instruction,  we  have 
seemed  to  dwell  more  particularly  upon  teaching  beginners, 
it  is  because  we  feel  that  this  will  be  particularly  useful  to 
teachers.  This  branch  of  education  differs  from  other  branches. 
The  eye  is  to  be  trained  to  know  peculiarities  of  form,  the 
hand  to  execute  them.  In  other  school-studies,  the  mind  is 
to  be  trained  to  know,  to  recall,  to  compare,  to  judge,  and,  by 
the  voice,  to  produce.  Observe  the  difference  :  here  a  sense  is 
to  be  educated,  and  an  organ  trained  to  obedience.  If,  then, 
those  who  are  required  to  teach  this  branch  can  only  be 
induced  to  begin  right,  they  will  find  little  difficulty  in  carry- 
ing their  scholars  on  to  the  most  satisfactory  results,  working 
out  our  principles  in  their  legitimate  development  to  suit  their 
own  methods.  Besides,  farther  on  we  give  full  instructions 
for  teaching  classes  as  they  advance. 


NECESSARY    MATERIALS.  11 


NECESSARY  MATERIALS    IN   A  WRITING-CLASS. 

Copy-Books.  —  Experience  lias  proved,  that  for  a  full 
course  of  instruction,  and  to  afford  sufficient  variety  to  the 
scholars,  about  twelve  numbers  are  required.  This  does  not 
add  to  the  expense  of  the  system,  because  the  scholar  buys 
and  uses  but  one  book  at  a  time.  For  the  actual  need  of  those 
who  remain  a  shorter  time  at  school,  we  have  prepared  the 
first  six  numbers,  which  are  designated  as 

THE   COMMON-SCHOOL   SERIES. 

No.  1,  for  beginners,  commencing  with  the  slanting  straight 
line,  and  embracing  all  the  short  letters. 

No.  2,  for  the  next  grade,  reviewing  the  lessons  of  No.  1, 
with  more  attention  to  free  movement,  and  including  the  whole 
small  alphabet. 

No.  3,  the  copies  of  smaller  size,  teaches  both  alphabets, 
and  is  ruled  with  guide-lines  for  the  heights  of  the  stem  and 
loop  letters  and  capitals. 

No.  4  is  ruled  with  double  lines,  to  aid  the  scholars  in  keep- 
ing the  size  of  the  short  letters  while  thrown  upon  their  own 
resources  for  the  heights  of  the  taller  ones.  The  words  are 
given  in  columns. 

No.  5  is  a  book  of  short  sentences,  with  a  word  at  each  end, 
ruled  with  single  lines. 

No.  6  has  sentences  across  the  whole  page,  with  a  capital 
at  each  end. 

The  successive  numbers  are  thus  carefully  graded  to  suit  the 
wants  of  the  several  grades  of  schools  or  classes.  They  furnish 
a  uniform  style  of  writing  and  of  instruction,  simple  and  practi- 
cal in  their  character.  Sufficient  directions  for  understanding 
and  writing  each  copy  are  printed  on  the  same  page  above  it 


12  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

in  clear  Roman  type.  The  quality  of  the  paper  used  in  the 
books  is  unsurpassed. 

The  Ruling  of  the  Copy-Books. —  The  pages  in  the 
copy-hooks  are  ruled  in  different  ways.  Some  have  double 
lines  and  boxes ;  others,  double  lines,  and  additional  lines 
marking  proportions  of  height;  others,  merely  double  lines; 
others  again,  single.  Some  are  divided  into  columns ;  others 
are  plain. 

Columns  are  marked  by  vertical  lines.  Boxes  are  half  the 
width  of  the  column. 

The  object  of  this  ruling  is  to  aid  the  beginner  in  making 
the  principles  and  letters  correctly  in  respect  to  height  and 
width.  If  he  makes  each  stroke  touch  both  top  and  base  line, 
he  secures  the  former.  If  he  begins  and  ends  in  the  corners, 
and  makes  the  strokes  extend  and  return  to  definite  distances 
on  these  lines,  as  in  the  copy,  he  secures  the  latter,  while  at 
the  same  time  he  gets  the  right  slants. 

Remark.  —  1.  In  all  cases  where  columns  are  ruled,  it  is 
intended  that  the  scholar  should  write  one  column  at  a  time, 
and  not  across  the  whole  page.  He  should  write  as  a  news- 
paper is  read. 

In  those  pages  where  words  are  given,  he  should  be  called 
upon  to  notice  how  much  of  the  word  is  contained  in  each 
box,  and  to  write  accordingly. 

Another  method  of  ruling  is  with  double  lines;  but,  instead 
of  boxes,  a  single  line  is  used  in  each  column  to  give  the  slant 
of  the  first  line  of  the  letter  or  word  to  be  written.  Thus 
the  pupil  is  thrown  more  upon  his  own  resources. 

Another  style  of  ruling,  still  more  advanced,  has  the  top 
and  base  lines  ruled  in  red :  between  these  the  short  letters 
are  written.  Two  blue  lines  above,  and  two  below,  mark  the 
heights  of  the  stem,  loop  letters,  and  capitals,  aiding  very 
materially  in  getting  the  correct  proportions  of  the  last. 

2.  The  copies  in  our  books  are  ruled  like  the  pages,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  so  that  the  scholar  can  be  taught  without 
difficulty  how  the    ruling  is    to   be   used.       The   most    exact 


NECESSARY    MATERIALS.  13 

observance  of  the  way  the  letters  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
ruling  should  be  required.  We  mention  this  because  we  have 
seen  books  in  which  letters  half  the  proper  size  were  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  boxes,  not  touching  the  ruled  lines  any- 
where,—  like  little  birds  sitting  in  cages  on  invisible  perches. 

Pens.  —  Steel  pens  should  be  used,  of  the  best  quality. 
They  should  be  fine,  neither  too  flexible  nor  too  stiff.  These 
are  necessary  for  beginners  as  well  as  for  the  more  advanced. 
It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  any  thing  will  answer 
for  the  commencement.  Scholars  should  not  be  allowed  to 
use  any  pen  but  the  kind  selected  by  the  teacher. 

Penholders.  —  These  must  be  long  and  light.  Avoid  any 
thing  like  iron  or  ivory  :  they  should  be  simple  in  construc- 
tion, hold  the  pen  firmly,  and  allow  it  to  be  changed  without 
difficulty.     Never  allow  short  holders  to  be  used. 

Ink.  —  The  qualities  of  a  good  ink  for  schools  are,  that  it 
should  be  thin,  so  that  it  may  flow  readily  from  the  pen ;  and 
black,  that  the  scholar  may  see  at  once  how  his  work  will 
appear.  The  rapid  evaporation  of  the  watery  part  of  the  ink 
must  be  met  by  frequently  adding  a  small  quantity  of  water, 
always  taking  care  to  mix  by  stirring.  Fresh  ink  must  be 
added  when  necessary  to  keep  up  the  color.  Take  care  to 
have  the  ink-stands  closed  when  not  in  use.  Have  the  ink- 
wells washed  out  as  often  as  any  sediment  accumulates. 
Always  have  the  ink  properly  attended  to  before  the  writ- 
ing-lesson begins. 

Caution  your  scholars  in  taking  ink  alwaj^s  to  observe 
strictly  what  they  are  doing.  The  pen  should  be  dipped  very 
carefully,  —  for  young  scholars,  only  up  to  the  pen's  eye  ;  while 
for  older  ones,  especially  where  shades  are  to  be  made,  the  eye 
is  to  be  filled.  If  this  point  is  attended  to,  almost  all  blots 
may  be  avoided. 

Penwipers.  —  Every  scholar  should  have  one  to  cleanse 
his  pen  when  necessary.  They  may  be  conveniently  made  of 
two  or  three  circular  pieces  of  woollen  cloth,  stitched  together 
in  the  centre.     The  pen  should  be  wiped  between  the  folds,  so 


14  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

that,  if  the  penwiper  should  happen  to  be  laid  on  the  page, 
there  may  be  no  blot.  They  can  be  collected  and  distributed 
by  monitors,  or  each  scholar  may  keep  his  own  in  his  desk. 

Practice-Paper.  —  This  is  needed  to  try  the  pen  on,  to 
practise  the  copy  a  few  times  before  writing  in  the  books,  or 
any  letter  that  presents  peculiar  difficulty.  We  furnish  it  cut 
in  slips,  and  ruled  to  correspond  to  the  different  numbers  of 
the  series.  Common  ruled  letter-paper  will  also  answer,  if 
the  other  cannot  easily  be  procured. 

Blotting-Board. —  A  piece  half  the  size  of  the  book  is 
large  enough.  It  is  well  to  have>  it  tolerably  stiff.  When 
writing,  it  should  be  placed  under  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand, 
which  hold  the  book  steady.  When  the  writing  is  finished,  it 
should  be  laid  carefully  on  the  page,  not  slid  over  it,  and 
pressed  to  absorb  the  ink  before  closing  the  book.  Do  not 
allow  the  scholars  to  place  it  on  each  word  as  soon  as  written, 
or  the  color  of  the  ink  will  be  spoiled.    ■ 

Covers.  —  A  very  nice  and  convenient  cover  may  be  made, 
for  those  who  wish  to  keep  their  books  in  good  order,  by  cut- 
ting a  piece  of  Manilla  paper  the  depth  of  the  page,  and  four 
times  its  length.  Fold  this  four  times,  place  the  back  of  the 
book  on  the  middle  fold,  and  lap  the  extreme  parts  over  the 
cover  or  the  pages  when  written. 


"Writing-Tax. — A  good  plan  is  to  collect  a  small  tar  — 
three  or  four  cents  —  from  each  scholar  at  the  beginning  of 
the  term,  for  which  pens,  ink,  penholders,  and  blotters  are 
supplied. 

Supervision.  —  The  teacher  ought  to  take  charge  of  the 
books,  pens,  and  other  materials,  so  that  all  may  be  »<<jpt  in 
the  best  and  neatest  state. 


ORGANIZING    CLASSES.  15 


ORGANIZING    CLASSES. 

Since  there  are  both  graded  and  ungraded  schools,  it  is 
evident  that  the  method  adopted  must  be  different.  It  is 
presumed,  that,  owing  to  the  efforts  of  authors  and  educational 
publishers,  systematic  teaching  of  writing  is  practised  in  all 
cities  which  have  graded  schools.  It  may,  therefore,  be  very 
briefly  stated,  that  the  same  room  should  have  the  same  book, 
and  that  the  series  should  be  written  in  regular  order.  The 
first  six  books,  forming  the  common-school  series,  furnish  a 
three-years'  course  in  the  grammar-school.  They  are  care- 
fully graduated  from  the  simplest  element  to  the  sentence 
across  the  page,  thus  supplying  material  for  the  acquisition  of 
a  good  hand  even  to  those  whose  time  at  school,  owing  to  the 
necessities  of  labor,  is  limited ;  while  the  higher  numbers 
afford  advanced  instruction  and  an  agreeable  variety  for  those 
who  remain  longer. 

Ungraded  schools  present  a  problem  far  more  difficult  of 
solution.  The  perverse  human  nature  of  pupils  and  the 
prejudices  of  parents  are  factors  that  must  not  be  lost  sight 
of.  as  the  wise  teacher  well  knows.  There  are  two  plans 
which  have  hitherto  been  found  most  successful.  The  first  is, 
to  satisfy  the  above  troublesome  factors  by  allowing  every 
pupil  to  have  what  number  of  copy-book  he  likes  to  amuse 
himself  with,  and  then  require  all  to  have  the  same  number, 
say  No.  1,  for  a  drill-book.  Then  teach  writing  in  this  book 
for  the  larger  part  of  each  exercise,  and  afterwards  let  the 
scholars  write  in  their  other  books.  If  the  teacher  awakens 
an  interest  by  the  results  of  this  method,  he  will  have  little 
trouble  in  introducing  the  second  plan. 

The  second  plan  is,  to  divide  the  school  into  two  classes. 
Pass  round  slips  of  paper,  and  dictate  a  short  sentence  to  be 
written.     Place  the  best  writers  in  one  class,  and  the  poorest 


16  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

in  the  other.  Use  No.  3  for  the  higher,  and  No.  1  for  the 
lower.  Have  them  all  write  at  the  same  time.  Give  the 
lesson  to  one  class,  and  direct  them  to  write  so  many  lines  in 
the  book,  and  then  continue  practising  on  their  spare  paper. 
Then  give  the  lesson  to  the  second  class,  and  set  them  to 
work.  Return  to  criticise  the  first  class  ;  let  them  again  write 
a  definite  number  of  lines ;  then  the  second ;  and  so  on. 

But  now  a  question  arises,  What  shall  we  do  with  scholars 
coming  from  other  schools,  who,  well  advanced  in  other 
studies,  have  yet  never  been  taught  to  write?  The  following 
method,  which  we  pursue  ourselves,  has  always  been  attended 
with  success :  We  allow  the  scholar,  on  entering,  to  take  the 
book  that  his  class  are  using ;  but,  instead  of  allowing  him  to 
write  the  copies  for  the  first  few  lessons,  we  set  special  ones 
for  him.  Remembering  that  the  slanting  straight  line  with 
the  lower  and  upper  turns  is  the  fundamental  form  in  the 
small  letters,  give  him  a  copy  of  single  w's,  calling  his  atten- 
tion specially  to  the  straightness  and  slant  of  the  down-stroke, 
shortness  of  turn,  and  width  of  letter;  next  groups  of  u; 
then  n  and  m,  noticing  the  importance  of  carrying  the  up- 
stroke far  enough  over  to  make  the  down-stroke  straight  and 
slanting.  Keep  him  on  these  forms  till  he  masters  the  idea. 
Then  show  him  the  peculiarity  of  a,  c,  e,  r,  s,  the  change  of 
slant  in  the  upward  movement  for  the  stems  and  loops,  and 
how  to  write  the  lower  loops  ;  always  keeping  in  mind,  that,  as 
soon  as  he  knows  the  principles,  he  knows  the  letters. 

Then  let  him  go  on  with  the  class,  and  in  a  short  time  he 
will,  with  a  little  special  supervision,  manage  very  tolerably. 

Another  question  is  asked,  How  shall  we  correct  wrong 
penholding?  We  answer,  Show  the  reasonableness  of  good 
penholding,  and  then  try  the  effects  of  a  resolute  will. 

How  shall  we  correct  bad  position  ?  Show  the  reasonable- 
ness of  a  good  position,  and  use  persistent  effort. 

How  shall  we  interest  our  scholars  ?  Qualify  yourselves  by 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  this  Manual,  instruct  your  scholars 
as  directed,  keep  their  attention  fixed  on  one  point  at  a  time, 


THE   LESSON.  17 

and  insist  on  their  doing  as  you  tell  them.  Following  our 
methods,  you  would  find  yourself  able  to  interest  a  class  for 
a  whole  month  in  the  execution  of  simple  straight  lines. 
Scholars  glory  in  perfection,  if  the  possibility  of  it  is  only 
placed  within  their  reach. 


THE    LESSON. 

Under  the  head  of  Method  of  Instruction,  we  have  given 
full  directions  for  the  teacher's  guidance.  We  propose  here 
to  give  a  few  particulars  as  to  the  lesson. 

If  possible,  beginners  in  the  grammar-school  ought  to  write 
half  an  hour  every  day ;  more  advanced  classes,  forty  minutes 
four  times  a  week.  The  time  selected  should  not  be  immedi- 
ately at  the  opening  of  the  session  or  directly  after  recess, 
because  then  the  scholars'  hands  are  apt  to  be  heated  by  the 
excitement  of  play. 

The  amount  written  must  depend  on  the  advancement  of 
the  scholars.  At  the  first  commencement,  it  may  be  only  five 
or  six  lines  of  a  column.  After  the  first  page,  if  that  is  care- 
fully written,  there  will  be  little  difficulty  in  writing  half  a 
page  at  a  lesson.  Later,  as  much  should  be  written  as  can  be 
done  well.  Much  will  necessarily  depend  on  the  control  the 
teacher  has  over  the  scholars  in  enforcing  immediate  and 
exact  obedience  and  lively  attention,  and  also  on  the  number 
of  scholars  in  the  class. 

The  books  and  other  materials  distributed   as  suggested  in 

the  next  section,  and  the  class  in  position,  supposing  penhold- 

ing  and  finger  movements  already  taught,  the  teacher  requires 

them  to  read  the  directions  at  the  top  of  the  page ;  also  any 

thing  bearing  on  the  lesson  from  the  cover.     He  then  questions 

them  as  to  what  is  to  be  written,  the  name  of  the   form,  its 

parts  and  proportions.      Having  ruled  lines  like  those  of  the 

2 


18  MANUAL    OF    PENMANSHIP. 

book  on  the  board,  he  requires  them  to  direct  him  where  to 
begin,  what  to  write,  following  their  directions  exactly.  He 
should  next  give  them  such  instruction  as  he  finds  in  the 
Manual,  and  point  out  the  true  form  on  the  Tablets. 

The  common-school  series  is  sufficiently  complete,  by  the 
fulness  of  directions  at  the  top  of  the  pages  and  on  the 
covers,  to  enable  the  teacher  to  do  his  work  successfully  by 
their  aid  alone ;  but  the  Manual  and  Blackboard  Tablets 
will  be  found  very  valuable  auxiliaries  by  those  who  desire  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject,  as  they  are  prepared  for 
this  very  purpose. 

When  the  scholars  have  acquired  exact  knowledge  of  what 
is  to  be  done  and  how  to  do  it,  the  next  step  is  to  have  them 
write  on  their  practice-paper  by  count,  to  trace  the  copy  with 
dry  pens,  to  criticise,  and  then  to  write  in  their  books,  to 
criticise  and  correct  constantly  in  the  way  already  directed. 

After  the  first  page  is  written,  five  minutes  of  each  lesson 
should  be  spent  on  the  movement-exercises.     (See  page  34.) 

We  cannot  too  earnestty  urge  upon  teachers  the  importance 
of  class-instruction  and  class-criticism  ;  it  saves  so  much  labor, 
and  is  so  much  more  effective.  Though  individual  instruction 
cannot  altogether  be  dispensed  with,  let  it  nevertheless  be 
reduced  to  the  minimum. 


OPENING   AND   CLOSING. 

The  great  object  in  distributing  the  materials  for  writing, 
which  should  always  be  kept  in  charge  of  the  teacher,  is  to 
save  time.  After  trying  a  variety  of  methods,  we  think  the 
following  is  the  most  rapid,  and  occasions  the  least  disturbance. 

A  scholar  is  selected  for  each  aisle,  who  distributes  and 
collects  the  books  right  and  left  alternately.  The  piles  are 
placed  on  the  front  desks  :   one  scholar  then  collects  the  whole, 


POSITION. 


L9 


placing  the  backs  of  one  pile  on  the  fronts  of  the  next,  and 
so  on  alternately,  afterwards  carrying  the  whole  to  the  place 
appointed  for  them. 

As  soon  as  the  books  are  distributed,  the  scholars  conic  to 
the  teacher,  who  gives  to  each,  in  turn,  the  number  of  pen- 
required  for  each  aisle  :  they  should  alwa}rs  be  carried  with 
their  points  down.  Or  a  handful  of  pens  may  be  given  to 
two  scholars,  who  go  down  and  up  the  aisles,  meeting  in  the 
middle.      They  may  be  collected  in  the  same  way. 

The  penwipers  may  be  kept  in  the  desks. 

During  the  distribution  and  collection,  the  scholars  should 
all  be  in  their  usual  position,  with  arms  folded,  or  any  other 
preferred.  No  interference  with  the  distributers  should  be 
allowed. 

When  all  is  ready,  the  following  method  for  opening  and 
closing  will  give  a  pleasant  uniformity :  the  teacher  can  give 
the  words  or  the  numbers,  as  preferred :  — 


OPENING. 

CLOSING. 

1. 

Take  position. 

8.   Dry  the  pens. 

2. 

Adjust  books. 

9.   Lay  down  pens. 

3. 

Adjust  arms. 

10.   Take  usual  position. 

4. 

Find  copy. 

11.   Close  inkstands. 

5. 

Open  books. 

12.  Close  books. 

6. 

Open  inkstands. 

KB.  — Give  the  order  "Take 

7. 

Take  pens. 

ink  "  when  ready. 

POSITION. 

The  position  of  the  body  is  of  very  great  importance  to 
correctness  and  freedom  of  execution.  The  proper  position 
of  the  arms,  hands,  and  books,  must  also  be  carefully  attended 
to.     The  accompanying  cuts  give  admirable  illustrations. 


20  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

1.  Of  the  Body.  —  1.  Let  the  body  be  erect  and  self- 
supported. 

2.  Let  the  right  side  be  turned  exactly  to  the  desk;  and 
the  feet  placed  at  the  side  of  the  seat,  flat  on  the  floor.  (Fig.  1.) 

Remark.  —  1.  The  relative  position  of  the  right  fore-arm 
and  book  is  thus  most  easily  secured  and  maintained. 

2.  The  front  or  back  of  the  desk  is  a  constant  guide  to  the 
position  of  the  fore-arm. 

3.  The  body  is  more  easily  kept  erect :  there  is  less  possi- 
bility of  lounging. 

4.  The  right  fore-arm  cannot  get  off  the  desk  :  both  the 
rests  must  remain  on. 

5.  The  teacher  can  easily  see  the  position  of  every  hand 
and  arm  across  the  rows  and  down  the  files. 

If  this  position  has  never  been  tried,  we  think  the  teacher 
will  find  it  worth  while  to  subject  it  to  experiment. 

The  only  objection  that  can  be  made  to  this  position  is,  on 
the  ground,  that  in  business,  when  using  large  account-books, 
it  is  unsuitable.  The  answer  to  this  is,  that  it  possesses  very 
important  advantages  for  learners  and  for  the  teacher;  and 
that,  when  the  art  of  writing  is  acquired,  any  other  position 
will  be  found  equally  available. 

If,  however,  any  other  position  should  be  preferred,  —  the 
body  fairly  fronting  the  desk  (Fig.  2),  or  with  more  or  less 
inclination  of  the  right  or  left  side  to  it  (Fig.  3),  —  attention 
must  be  directed  to  the  following  points  :  — 

1.  Keeping  the  right  fore-arm  on  the  desk  at  least  as  far 
as  half  way  between  the  wrist  and  elbow.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  pushing  the  book  up  every  three  or  four  lines. 

2.  Keeping  the  books  at  right  angles  to  the  fore-arm. 

3.  There  must  be  no  leaning  against  the  desk,  or  resting 
on  the  right  fore-arm. 

II.  Of  the  Arms.  —  1.  Place  the  right  fore-arm  on  the 
desk,  parallel  to  the  back  or  front  edge. 

Much  attention  must  be  given  to  this  rule,  to  guard  against 
projecting  the  elbow. 


?IGHT   SIDE   TURNED   TO   THE   DESK- 
(Fig.  1.) 


FRONTING  THE  DESK. 
(VUr.  2  .1 


LEFT   SIDE  INCLINED   TO   THE   DESK. 
(Fig.  3.) 


PENHOLDLNG.  23 

2.  Bring  the  left  arm  across,  and  place  the  fingers  on  the 
left  side  of  the  page,  to  keep  the  book  steady. 

III.  Of  the  Hands.  —  1.  Keep  the  right  hand  in  a  line 
with  the  fore-arm. 

2.  Keep  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  on  the  left  side  of  the 
book. 

IV.  Of  the  Book.  —  1.  Turn  the  book,  and  place  the 
upper  left  corner  in  the  corner  of  the  desk,  the  top  at  the  left 
side.  It  is  to  be  pushed  up  toward  the  back  of  the  desk 
when  the  first  column  is  to  be  written,  and  drawn  down  to  the 
front  or  over  it  for  succeeding  columns,  to  suit  the  scholar's 
convenience. 

2.  Place  the  top  of  the  book  on  the  left  edge  of  a  single 
desk,  and  at  the  left  edge  and  middle  of  a  two-seated  desk. 
This  should  be  constantly  attended  to. 

Remark.  —  It  will  be  found  convenient  to  double  the  books 
back  exactly  at  the  stitching,  and  to  place  the  inner  flap  of 
the  cover  over  the  written  pages. 


PENHOLDING. 

The  most  effectual  method  of  teaching  scholars  to  hold  the 
pen  correctly  is  to  impress  on  their  minds  the  following  simple 
rules. 

For  the  middle  finger,  two  rules  :  — 

Rule  1. — End  of  the  finger  at  the  end  of  the  holder,  where 
the  pen  is  inserted  (A). 

Remark.  —  This  allows  the  pen  to  project  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  beyond  the  fingers,  and  keeps  the  finger 
out  of  the  ink.     . 

Rule  2.  —  Holder  at  the  side  of  the  finger,  just  under  the 
corner  of  the  nail.  If  preferred,  instead  of  this,  the  holder 
may  cross  the  finger  at  the  root  of  the  nail  (B). 


24  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

Remark.  — We  prefer  the  former  for  beginners ;  because,  if 
pupils  are  allowed  to  drop  the  end  of  the  middle  finger,  they 
are  apt  to  curl  it  up  too  much,  and  often  to  hold  the  pen  with 
only  the  forefinger  and  thumb. 

For  the  thumb,  two  rules  :  — 

Rule  1. — End  of  the  thumb  opposite  the  first  joint  of 
the  middle  finger  (C). 

Remark.  —  This  is  secured  by  bending  the  joints  of  the 
thumb  outwards. 

Rule  2.  — Inside  upper  corner  of  the  thumb  a  little  under 
the  holder  (D). 

Remark.  —  This  is  very  important.  If  neglected,  the 
holder  will  fall  below  the  knuckle  of  the  forefinger.  The 
corner  of  the  thumb,  being  under  it,  prevents  this. 

Two  rules  for  the  forefinger  :  — 

Rule  1.  —  Shut  the  forefinger  down  on  the  pen,  and  let  it 
touch  the  middle  finger  throughout  its  whole  length  (E). 

Remark.  —  The  first  and  second  fingers  are  slightly  bent 
outwards  at  the  first  and  second  joints. 

Rule  2.  —  Let  the  holder  cross  the  third  section  of  the  fore- 
finger obliquely  between  the  second  joint  and  the  knuckle  (P). 

Remark.  —  The  holder  can  easily  be  kept  above  the 
knuckle  if  the  corner  of  the  thumb  is  placed  a  little  under  it. 

Two  rules  for  the  holder  :  — 

Rule  1.  —  It  should  make  an  angle  of  about  45°  with  the 
paper.  If  elevated  too  much,  it  is  apt  to  catch  in  the  paper;  if 
not  enough,  clear  lines  cannot  be  made. 

Rule  2.  — The  top  of  it  should  point  slightly  inwards  to 
the  shoulder.  This  is  effected  by  turning  the  hand  slightly 
to  the  right  at  the  wrist.  It  is  thus  made  to  slant  nearly  like 
the  writing,  and  the  hand  is  kept  from  dropping  down  on  the 
right  side. 

Remark.  —  There  is  a  constant  tendency  with  beginners 
to  let  the  hand  fall  over  and  rest  on  the  little-finger  side. 
Hence  this  last  rule  is  very  important ;  for,  if  the  hand  is 
allowed  to  so  rest  on  the  side,  it  will  be  found  that  the  move- 


PENHOLDING. 


25 


merits  are  made  by  moving  the  whole  hand  from  the  wrist, 
which  results  in  crooked  and  coarse  lines,  owing  to  the  use  of 
only  the  right  nib  of  the  pen. 

Several  methods  may  be  used  with  advantage  to  teach  the 
scholars  how  to  hold  the  pen. 


1.  The  teacher  should  take  a  position  in  front  of  his  desk, 
and  show  the  correct  method  with  a  pen  in  his  own  hand. 

2.  He  should  direct  the  scholars  to  take  the  holder  by  the 
end  between  the  forefinger  and  thumb  of  the  left  hand,  and  to 
hold  it  vertically,  with  the  point  of  the  pen  downwards ;  then 
to  hold  out  the  right  hand,  to  curl  the  third  and  fourth  fingers 
up  against  the  palm,  to  extend  the  first  and  second,  and  to 
place  the  end  of  the  thumb  a  little  beyond  the  first  joint  of 
the  forefinger;  next,  to  raise  the  pen  so  that  the  holder  may 
be  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  to  move  it  sideways,  and  place 
it  between  the  thumb  and  fingers  along  the  whole  length  of 
the  forefinger,  the  end  of  the  holder  next  the  pen  at  the  side 
of  the  middle  finger,  or  across  the  root  of  the  nail.  The 
holder  thus  placed,  and  still  held  at  the  top  by  the  left-hand 
fingers,  is  below  the  knuckle  :  the  fingers  are  still  extended^ 
and  the  thumb  is  underneath.  Finally,  he  may  direct  them  U 
raise  the  holder  by  the  left  hand  above  the  knuckle,  bendinj 
the  fingers  and  the  thumb  at  the  first  and  second  joint  as 
they  do  so ;   and  the  true  position  will  be  attained. 

Remark.  —  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  neces- 
sity of  holding  the  penholder  gently.  It  must  not  be  grasped 
or  pinched,  as  this,  by  the  tension  of  the  muscles,  destroys  all 
freedom  of  movement,  and  soon  causes  weariness  and  pain. 


26  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 


RESTS. 

There  are  two  Rests,  —  one  for  the  fore-arm,  called  the  Arm- 
Rest  ;  and  one  for  the  hand,  called  the  Hand-Rest. 

1.  The  Arm-Rest  is  the  muscle  at  the  thick  part  of  the 
fore-arm,  just  below  the  elbow.  By  keeping  the  flat  of  the  wrist 
well  towards  the  desk,  this  muscle  is  brought  under  the  arm. 

It  forms  a  yielding  cushion,  on  which  and  from  which,  as  a 
centre  of  motion,  the  fore-arm  can  play  easily.  By  rolling  the 
arm  sideways  on  it,  a  lateral  movement  is  obtained  ;  and  it  also 
allows  a  projective  and  retractive  movement  of  the  whole 
fore-arm. 

This  rest  should  be  looked  upon  as  the  true  support  of  the 
arm ;  and  the  hand  should  be  considered  as  held  out  at  the 
end  of  the  arm  thus  supported. 

Remark.  —  In  order  to  have  free  motion  of  the  fore-arm, 
the  hand  must  be  kept  well  up,  —  that  is,  not  leaning  over 
towards  the  right, — and  the  wrist  must  not  touch  the  paper. 

II.  The  Hand-Rest  is  the  name  given  to  the  corners  of 
the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers,  which  are  placed  on 
the  paper  by  bending  the  fingers  well  under  at  the  first  and 
second  joints.  It  should  be  used  only  to  steady  the  hand. 
The  hand  should  not  be  allowed  to  rest  heavily  on  it :  if  it 
does,  the  side  movement  of  the  hand  will  be  arrested. 

Remark  1.  —  The  fleshy  cushion  of  the  third  finger  should 
be  on  the  nail  of  the  fourth,  and  these  fingers  should  be  kept 
clear  of  the  pen-fingers. 

2.  —  Let  the  scholars  hold  out  the  fore-arm,  and  observe 
that  the  hand  does  not  sink  down  for  want  of  support;  that  it 
can  be  held  out  in  a  line  with  the  arm  without  resting  on  any 
thing.  Endeavor  to  fix  on  their  minds  that  the  arm  is  thus 
to  hold  out  and  sustain  the  hand  when  writing,  and  that  the 
Hand-Rest  is  to  be  used  only  to  steady  it. 


MOVEMENTS.  27 


MOVEMENTS. 

The  force  by  which  the  pen  is  carried  in  different  directions 
must  work  through  some  instrumentality.  The  action  which 
results  is  termed  a  Movement. 

In  writing,  the  instruments  used  are  the  pen-fingers,  the 
fore-arm,  and  the  whole  arm,  giving  rise  to  the  three  principal 
movements,  named  respectively  the  finger  movement,  the  fore- 
arm or  muscular  movement,  and  the  whole-arm  movement. 

The  Fing-er  Movement  is  made  by  the  extension  and 
retraction  of  the  pen-fingers  by  flexion  at  the  second  joint  of 
the  first  and  second  fingers,  and  at  the  first  joint  of  the  thumb, 
which  also  moves  as  far  as  its  origin  at  the  wrist. 

To  teach  this  tt>  your  scholars,  hold  a  pen  in  your  hand  so 
that  all  can  see.  Call  their  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the 
fingers  are  bent  down  at  the  second  joint,  and  the  thumb  out 
at  the  first ;  thus  holding  the  pen  in  a  medium  position,  capa- 
ble of  being  moved  upwards  or  downwards.  Show  them,  that, 
if  the  fingers  and  thumb  were  straight,  the  pen  would  be  fully 
extended,  and  an  up-stroke  could  not  be  made :  if  they  were 
bent  as  much  as  possible,  the  pen  would  be  fully  retracted,  and 
no  down-stroke  could  be  made.  Hence  the  convenience  of  the 
medium  position. 

Next  show,  that,  by  straightening  the  thumb,  the  pen  is 
pushed  upwards ;  and  that,  when  the  thumb  pushes,  the 
fingers  yield  at  the  second  joint.  In  this  way  an  up-stroke  is 
made. 

Then  show,  that,  by  bending  the  fingers  at  the  second  joint, 
the  pen  is  pushed  downwards ;  and  that  the  thumb,  in  turn, 
yields  by  bending  at  the  first  joint,  and  giving  way  as  far  as 
the  wrist.     In  this  way  a  down-stroke  is  made. 

The  scholars  should  now  take  their  pens,  and  place  them 
correctly  in  their  fingers,  holding  them  in  the  medium  posi~ 


28  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

tion.  Give  the  order  "  Thumb,"  upon  which  they  are  to  push 
up  with  the  thumb,  and  observe  the  upward  movement  of  the 
pen;  then  "Fingers,"  when  they  are  to  push  down  with  the 
fingers,  and  observe  the  downward  movement  of  the  pen. 
Repeat  this  slowly  several  times,  then  more  rapidly. 

After  this  has  been  done  ten  or  twelve  times,  let  them  lay 
down  their  pens,  as  their  fingers  soon  get  tired,  and  their 
minds  confused. 

While  they  are  resting,  tell  them  that  you  shall  begin  with 
the  same  words,  and  then  change  to  numbers ;  that,  when 
you  say  "  One,"  they  are  to  make  the  upward  movement ; 
"Two,"  the  downward.  Let  them  take  their  pens  again, 
holding  them  in  the  medium  position ;  and  after  saying 
u  Thumb,"  "  Fingers,"  two  or  three  times,  begin  "  One," 
"  Two,"  &c. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  correct  holding  of  the  pen ; 
especially  that  the  penholder  is  in  front  of  the  knuckle.  (2.) 
That  the  pen  is  in  the  medium  position.  (3.)  That  the  hand 
is  not  resting  on  the  right  side.  (4.)  That  the  movement  on 
the  part  of  all  the  scholars  is  simultaneous. 

Remark  1.  —  Absolute  obedience  is  necessary  to  success. 
Here  is  the  beginning  of  that  simultaneous  work,  which,  care- 
fully enforced,  will  enable  you  to  handle  the  class  as  one  indi- 
vidual. 

2.  —  Do  not  continue  this  exercise  too  long.  Remember 
your  own  experience  when  you  began  to  write. 

The  Fore-arm  or  Muscular  Movement  consists  of  the 
forward-and-backward  and  of  the  lateral  movement  of  the 
fore-arm  on  the  arm-rest,  —  that  is,  the  muscle  below  the  el- 
bow, —  as  the  centre  of  motion.  The  combination  of  these 
two  produces  the  oblique  movements  required. 

The  Whole-arm  Movement  is  used  mainly  for  striking 
large  capitals  and  for  flourishing.  In  this,  the  hand,  steadied 
on  its  rest,  is  moved  as  required  by  the  action  of  the  whole 
arm  from  the  shoulder  as  the  centre  of  motion. 

Combined  Movements  result  from  the  union  of  any  two 
or  all  of  the  above. 


MOVEMENTS. 


29 


Practical  Use.  —  First,  For  beginners,  since  the  time 
generally  allotted  to  writing  is  so  short,  and  the  thorough 
study  of  the  forms  of  the  letters  so  imperative,  the  simplest 
movements  we  can  use  are  the  best. 

Two  things  are  to  be  accomplished,  —  the  up-strokes  and 
down-strokes  of  the  letters,  and  the  keeping  of  the  hand  in 
the  same  relative  position  for  each  succeeding  part  by  moving 
it  to  the  right  across  the  column.  The  finger  movement  secures 
the  former,  and  the  lateral  part  of  the  fore-arm  movement  the 
latter. 


• 

fingers      ..< 

!                           , 

HI 

Bfl           -  Hfl            •  BUS 

SandBest  

•    - 

Slide                    Slide                Slide              Slide 
Stop                 Stop                 Stop 

The  diagram  shows  exactly  how  the  movements  are  com- 
bined. The  pen  being  correctly  held,  and  the  hand  rightly 
placed,  whenever  the  pen-fingers  move  up  obliquely  to  make 
the  up-stroke,  the  hand-rest,  and  by  consequence  the  whole 
hand,  is  moved  sideways  by  the  action  of  the  fore-arm.  When 
the  pen-fingers  move  down,  the  forward  movement  of  the  hand 
and  its  rest  is  stopped,  because  the  down-stroke  is  towards  the 
left,  and  no  advance  of  the  hand  is  needed. 

The  fingers  make  the  up-strokes  and  down-strokes  of  the 
letter ;  the  rest  slides  forward  on  a  straight  horizontal  line  for 
each  up-stroke,  and  stops  whilst  each  down-stroke  is  made. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  position  of  the  hand,  keep- 
ing it  well  up,  not  falling  over  to  the  right.  (2.)  The  separa- 
tion of  the  hand-rest  from  the  pen-fingers.  (3.)  The  slide 
sideways  without  "  hitching." 

Remark.  —  It  is  very  difficult  for  scholars  to  acquire  this 
combined  movement.  Care  should  be  taken,  therefore,  that, 
in  writing,  they  do  not  lift  the  point  of  the  pen  from  the  paper 
till  the  group  of  letters  or  the  word  is  written  ;  except  in  pT 
for  which  special  directions  are  given. 


30 


MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


Second,  As  soon  as  the  hand  is  somewhat  trained,  and  a 
tolerable  degree  of  steadiness  acquired,  an  advance  in  move- 
ment may  be  safely  attempted. 

The  hand-rest  should 
now  be  made  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  move- 
ments of  the  fingers. 
As  they  move  obliquely 
up  and  down,  it  should  do  the  same,  describing  a  letter  of 
the  same  form,  but  making  it  of  less  height,  because  part  of 
the  movement  is  made  by  the  lingers. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Making  the  hand-rest  move  with 
the  fingers.  (2.)  Taking  care  that  the  wrist  does  not  touch 
the  paper. 

Third,  The  muscu- 
lar movement,  which  is 
the  true  business  move- 
ment, may  now  be  ac- 
quired. It  consists  in 
the  use  of  the  fore-arm 
mainly,  the  pen-fingers 
being  used  only  to  aid  in  making  the  extended  letters. 

For  the  short  letters,  the  fingers  are  not  moved  at  all.  The 
fore-arm  moves  the  whole  hand  to  form  the  letter;  and  conse- 
quently the  hand-rest  describes  a  letter  of  the  same  form  and 
size  as  the  pen  does. 

For  the  ex- 
tended letters, 
the  fingers  are 
extended  or 
contracted  t  o 
make  those 
parts    of   the 

stems  and  the  loops  which  are  above  or  below  the  short  letters. 
This  is  shown  in  the  diagram  by  the  dotted  lines. 

For  the  capitals,  the   movement  of  the  fingers  is  combined 


COUNTING.  81 

with  that  of  the  whole  hand,  to  give  the  greatest  possible  ease 
to  the  curves  and  turns. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Making  the  slightest  possible 
movement  of  the  pen-fingers,  except  in  the  extended  letters 
and  capitals.  (2.)  Using  the  muscle  below  the  elbow  as  the 
centre  of  motion. 

Remark.  —  The  muscular  movement  can  only  be  acquired 
by  persistent  practice.  Our  own  experience  teaches  us,  that, 
if  scholars  are  thoroughly  drilled  in  the  accurate  execution  of 
the  forms  of  the  letters,  as  soon  as  they  have  sufficient  prac- 
tice they  run  at  once  into  a  business-hand.  The  most 
superlative  movement  without  accurate  and  graceful  form  is 
absolutely  worthless ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  real  grace  and 
finish  can  only  be  secured  by  free  and  practised  movement. 
Farther  on,  a  section  will  be  found  giving  a  variety  of  exer- 
cises to  facilitate  the  acquirement  of  this. 


COUNTING. 

As  the  appearance  of  the  lines  forming  the  letters  should 
be  uniform,  equable  movements  are  necessary  in  their  execu- 
tion ;  and,  as  there  are  a  great  many  things  for  a  beginner 
to  think  about  in  writing,  some  device  for  securing  sufficient 
time  for  thought  is  very  valuable. 

For  these  ends,  no  method  has  yet  been  found  superior  to 
counting.  It  checks  the  sudden  jerks  with  which  beginners 
delight  to  strike  off  the  final  parts  of  letters,  and  it  compels 
them  to  such  a  rate  of  progress  as  gives  time  for  thought  and 
care.  Besides  this,  it  urges  the  very  slow  to  a  proper  speed, 
and  checks  the  hurried  rate  of  the  nervous;  while  it  exercises 
a  peculiarly  beneficent  influence  on  the  irritable. 

It  should  always  be  remembered  that  it  is  merely  a  means 
to  these  ends,  and  not  an  end  itself.     If  any  one  doubts  its 


32  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

utility,  instead  of  speculating  on  its  probable  results,  let  it  be 
subjected  to  the  test  of  experience,  and  a  wise  decision  can 
soon  be  arrived  at. 

When  scholars  begin  the  study  of  penmanship,  the  first 
five  or  six  copies  of  No.  1  may  be  counted  all  through.  Then 
it  may  be  found  sufficient  to  count  the  first  column  of  each 
new  combination  ;*  afterwards,  merely  half  a  column ;  later 
still,  only  two  or  three  lines.  As  soon  as  equable  movements 
are  attained,  and  the  class  generally  are  drilled  to  a  proper  care, 
and  avoidance  of  hurry,  it  may  be  dispensed  with  altogether. 
It  will,  however,  be  found  useful  for  any  new  letter  or  peculiar 
combination,  and  for  an  occasional  check  on  too  rapid  a  rate  of 
execution. 

Our  method  is  to  count  generally  the  odd  numbers  for  the 
up-strokes,  and  the  even  numbers  for  the  down-strokes. 

Thus,  in  u,  we  count  one,  up  ;  two, 
down ;  three,  up ;  four,  down ;  one,  up. 
We  count  one  for  the  final  connecting 
line,  because,  in  a  combination,  it  is  the  first  line  of  the  next 
letter. 

Such  a  method  of  counting  should  be  used  as  may  best 
secure  the  end  in  view.  Thus,  in  r,  for  beginners  it  is  useful 
to  count  four,  —  one,  up  ;  two  for  the  very  short  line  return- 
ing on  the  same ;  three  for  the  little  vertical  line ;  four  for 
the  oblique  stiaight  line,  and  bend  of  turn ;  one  for  the  final 
connecting  line.  In  this  case,  as  the  lines  two  and  three  are 
very  short,  the  numbers  may  be  counted  a  little  more  rapidly. 
When  scholars  are  more  advanced,  and  the  writing  is  smaller, 
three  may  be  counted.  Thus,  one,  up;  two  for  the  head; 
three,  the  oblique  down-stroke  ;  one,  up. 

The  general  rule  for  counting  is,  to  use  a  fresh  count  for 
each  principal  change  of  direction  in  the  lines. 

Cross  the  t  and  x,  and  dot  the  i  and  j,  after  the  group  or 
word  is  finished,  saying,  "Cross,"  "Dot." 

It  will  be  found  important,  also,  to  show  on  the  board  pre- 
cisely how  much  of  a  letter  is  made  at  each  count.     Thus,  in 


MOVEMENT    EXERCISES.  33 

u,  one,  the  whole  up-stroke  ;  two,  the  whole  down-stroke,  — 
that  is,  the  oblique  straight  line,  with  the  little  bend  at  the 
bottom  for  the  turn;  three,  the  whole  up-stroke;  four  as  two; 
one  as  three.  Remember  to  warn  the  scholars  against  stopping 
in  the  middle  of  the  turn  :  the  motion  is  continuous  through 
the  principle. 

For  the  capitals  the  same  method  may  be  followed.  Thus 
for  Jj,  with  the  full  oval  front,  we  may  count,  for  stem,  one, 
double  curve  down;  two,  up  on  left  side  to  the  middle  of  the 
turn  ;  three,  down  and  under  to  the  left ;  four,  over  and  down 
to  the  middle  of  the  turn ;  five,  up. 

The  figures  for  counting  are  marked  above  the  copies  in 
the  earlier  books. 


MOVEMENT    EXERCISES. 

The  accompanying  exercises  are  designed,  after  a  definite 
and  scientific  method,  to  train  the  hand  in  acquiring  facil- 
ity of  execution  for  those  movements  which  the  actual  forms 
of  writing  require.  The  common  practice  in  many  systems 
of  giving  a  variety  of  unconnected  exercises,  leading  to  no 
given  result,  and  arranged  without  rhyme  or  reason,  has 
brought  such  exercises  into  disrepute  with  practical  teachers. 
They  will,  nevertheless,  be  found  a  most  valuable  auxiliary 
when  rightly  arranged  and  faithfully  used.  We  therefore 
call  especial  attention  to  the  progressive  arrangement  and 
definite  object  of  those  here  given. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  teacher  should  place  them  on  the 
board  and  explain  their  object,  giving  exact  directions  for 
their  execution,  and  requiring  perfect  obedience  to  his  direc- 
tions. 

Let  the  pupils  have  half  a  quire  of  letter-paper  or  a  spare 
blank-book,  ruled,  without  copies ;  and  insist  upon  the  exercise* 

3 


84  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

being  written  according  to  the  directions  given,  as  carefully  as 
they  write  their  copies,  without  any  scribbling. 

Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  correct  position  and 
penholding :  without  these  the  exercises  will  be  of  no  value. 

Exs.  A,  B.  — As  scholars  are  very  apt  to  lean  the  hand  over 
to  the  right,  these  vertical  exercises  are  designed  to  correct 
the  fault.  Draw  four  horizontal  lines  on  the  board  to  repre- 
sent the  ruling  of  their  paper.  Begin  at  the  top  line  ;  go 
vertically  down  to  the  fourth,  up,  down,  &c,  counting  "  one  " 
for  each  movement:  thus,  "one,"  "two,"  &c,  —  six  in  all. 
Then  begin  again  at  a  short  distance  from  the  last. 

Watch  the  position  and  penholding.  The  movement  should 
be  made  on  the  muscle  in  front  of  the  elbow :  the  nails  of  the 
third  and  fourth  fingers  should  accompany  the  movement  of 
the  fingers  down  and  up. 

The  vertical  oval  should  be  written  in  the  same  way.  In 
the  diagram  the  lines  are  made  separate,  to  show  that  there 
are  several ;  but,  in  writing,  they  should  simply  overrun  the 
first  lines. 

Ex.  1. — To  acquire  the  sliding  movement  on  the  nails  of 
the  third  and  fourth  fingers.  Draw  four  lines  on  the  board 
as  before,  long  enough  to  represent  the  width  of  the  page. 
Write  the  first  line  of  the  exercise  on  the  first  line,  half  across 
the  page  only,  the  next  a  little  below,  and  so  on,  the  sixth  on 
the  next  ruled  line  below;  then  on  the  other  half  of  the 
page ;  thirdly,  begin  on  the  next  ruled  line,  &c.  The  muscle- 
rest  remains  stationary ;  the  finger-rest  slides  forward.  The 
straight  line  is  made  by  a  slight  retraction  of  the  fingers  to 
counteract  the  tendency  to  curve. 

Ex.  2.  —  For  practice  on  the  sliding  movement.  In  this 
case,  remember  the  object  is  the  movement,  and  not  the  abso- 
lute straightness  of  the  lines.     Count  as  marked. 

Exs.  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8.  —  These  are  drills  on  the  sliding 
movement  of  the  finger-rest  up  and  down.  Draw  six  lines 
on  the  board.  Begin  at  the  top,  and  write  down  to  the  third : 
when  this  row  is  completed,  begin  on  the  fourth,  and  write 


MOVEMENT   EXERCISES, 


MOVEMENT  EXERCISES. 


MOVEMENT   EXERCISES.  35 

down  to  the  sixth.  Require  the  lines  to  be  made  by  move- 
ment on  the  muscle-rest  without  bending  the  fingers.  In 
Exs.  7,  8,  overrun  the  first  oval,  always  using  the  fore-arm 
movement. 

Ex.  9. — To  combine  the  left-to-right  and  the  up-and-down 
fore-arm  movements.  Begin  on  the  second  line  and  slide, 
slightly  rising  to  half  the  height  between  the  lines.  Make  the 
down-stroke  without  moving  the  fingers  at  the  counts  "one," 
"two,"  giving  the  order  "Slide"  as  shown.  Turn  at  the  base- 
line.    Let  this  exercise  extend  across  half  the  page. 

Ex.  10.  —  Condensing  the  last.  Make  four  down-strokes 
across  half  the  page. 

Ex.  11. — This  further  condensation  gives  the  letter  u, 
showing  the  scholar  that  the  exercise  leads  directly  to  a 
practical  end.  Write  two  groups,  of  three  it's  each,  half  across 
the  page.  If  beginners  make  longer  groups,  they  are  apt  to 
get  out  of  position.     Count  one,  two,  three,  four,  one,  &c. 

Exs.  12,  13,  14.  —  Similar  exercises  on  the  second  and 
third  principles,  resulting  in  the  letter  n. 

Ex.  15.  —  The  »i,  for  variety,  may  sometimes  have  the  curve 
swung  round  it,  as  in  Ex.  18 ;  or  the  last  line  may  be  swung 
under,  and  two  other  groups  written  on  the  lines  below,  as 
Ex.  36.  Do  not  try  to  have  more  than  three  lines  written,  as 
the  arm-rest  will  not  allow  it  for  beginners.  Count  six.  For 
the  connecting-line  of  groups  say  "  Round." 

Exs.  16,  17,  18,  19,  20. —These  are  illustrations  of  the 
way  in  which  all  the  short  letters  should  be  practised.  The 
fore-arm  movement  is  to  be  used  throughout,  without  using 
the  fingers ;  which  will,  however,  slightly  participate  in  the 
movement,  as  it  is  right  they  should.  The  object  is  to  drill 
the  scholar  on  the  fore-arm  movement ;  and  therefore  we  con- 
centrate his  attention  on  that :  the  fingers  will  take  care  of 
themselves. 

Exs.  21,  22,  23,  24.  —  To  drill  on  the  shades  and  extended 
movements  in  the  stems  and  looped  letters.  Write  the  shades 
as  directed  in  the  chapter  on  Shading. 


36  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

Exs.  25,  26,  27,  28. — Further  exercises  on  the  loops. 

Ex.  29.  — This  is  an  exercise  for  the  direct  oval.  It  should 
be  overrun  between  three  lines.     Width  half  the  length. 

Ex.  30.  —  This  is  intended  to  give  the  power  of  shading  the 
left  curve  while  the  pen  is  kept  in  motion.  Separate  ovals 
follow,  to  be  struck  with  a  free  fore-arm  movement.  Count 
one,  down  ;  two,  up,  &c. ;  later,  one  for  the  complete  oval,  &c. 

Ex.  31.  —  An  exercise  for  the  indirect  oval.  Count  one,  up  ; 
two,  down ;  three,  up  ;  four,  down,  &c. ;  the  two  and  three  a 
little  quicker. 

Ex.  32. — Varied  exercises  on  the  same,  introducing  the 
shade  on  the  right  curve. 

Ex.  33.  — For  the  capital-stem,  to  acquire  the  double  curve. 
It  should  be  overrun.  Forms  are  also  given  to  impart  facility 
in  making  the  shade  on  the  lower  curve  of  the  stem. 

Exs.  34,  35.  — Drills  to  give  power  in  shading. 

Ex.  36.  —  An  exercise  on  writing  short  words  three  times, 
each  below  the  other,  connecting  them  by  a  curved  line 
swung  under.     A  variety  of  words  should  be  used. 

Ex.  37.  — A  group  of  letters  or  a  word  may  thus  have  an 
oval  swung  round  them  several  times. 

Exs.  38,  39,  40.  —  These  are  varied  exercises  on  the  direct 
oval.  Capital-stem  and  indirect  oval  adapted  to  give  free- 
dom of  movement,  and  power  of  shading. 


SPACING. 

Spacing  treats  of  the  width  of  letters,  and  of  their  arrange- 
ment in  words  at  proper  distances.  The  distances  between 
words  and  sentences  are  also  embraced  under  this  head. 

The  width  of  each  letter  is  given  in  the  analysis  and 
description  of  the  letters  :  therefore  nothing  further  need  be 
said  about  it  here.     We  have  shown  that  the  width  of  a  letter 


SPACING.  37 

depends  upon  the  slant  of  the  up-stroke.  It  may  be  well  to 
repeat,  that  a  condensed  style  results  from  carrying  up  the  up- 
strokes with  very  little  more  slant  than  the  down-strokes,  and 
a  running  hand  from  giving  increased  slant  to  the  up-strokes. 
We  pass  on,  then,  to  the  consideration  of  the  combination 
of  letters.  The  standard  of  measurement  for  width  is  the 
width  of  the  letter  u  between  its  two  upper  points :  this  is 
termed  a  space,  and  depends  on  the  slant  of  the  up-stroke. 

The  governing  principle  in 
combining   letters  in   a  word 


is,  that  they  should  look 
about  the  same  distance  apart.  This  distance  is  most  con- 
veniently made  when  the  up-stroke  is  oblique,  by  giving  it  the 
same  slant  as  it  has  in  u. 

If  the  next  letter  begins  with  a  turn,  as  n,  it  will  be  a  little 
farther  off  than  a  space  ;  but  the  correct  slant  of  the  up-stroke 
will  place  it  right. 

When  the  last  line  of  a  letter  is  a  horizontal  curve,  as  in  o 
or  v,  it  supersedes  the  first  line  of  the  next  letter ;  and  the 
question  arises,  How  long  should  this  horizontal  curve  be  ? 
We  think,  about  three  quarters  of  a  space ;  because,  this  con- 
necting curve  being  at  the  top,  the  space  between  the  letters 
shows  more  than  if  it  were  crossed  by  an  oblique  line. 

The  simple  rule,  therefore,  for  spacing  letters  in  a  word  is, 
when  the  last  line  of  a  letter  is  an  up-stroke,  write  it  with  the 
usual  up-slant,  observing  those  exceptions  which  arise  from 
any  peculiarity  of  the  following  letter,  —  as  e,  for  instance  ;  but, 
when  the  last  line  of  a  letter  is  a  horizontal  curve,  extend  it 
three-quarters  of  a  space,  —  that  is,  of  the  width  of  u. 

In  writing  words  in  a  sentence,  begin  the,  first  line  of  a 
succeeding  word  vertically  under  the  termination  of  the  last 
line  of  the  previous  wTord. 

Remark.  —  It  is  a  very  common  fault  to  place  the  words 
too  far  apart. 

Sentences  should  begin  close  to  the  period  which  terminates 
the  previous  sentence. 


38 


MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


Paragraphs    should    begin    about    half    an    inch    from  the 


margin. 


In  punctuation,  the  stops  should  be  placed  close  to  the  word 
they  follow. 

Figures  should  be  written  about  half  a  space  apart. 


SHADING. 


Variety  is  an  element  of  beauty.  To  have  all  the  down- 
strokes  in  writing  equally  fine  or  heavy  would  become  weari- 
some to  the  eye  through  sameness,  and  the  happy  effect  of 
contrast  would  be  lost. 

Hence  in  the  modern  business  style  it  is  customary,  while 
by  far  the  larger  number  remain  fine,  to  shade  the  remaining 
few. 

A  fine  line   (Fig.  1)  is  one  made  by  simply 
moving  the  pen  on  the  paper  without  pressure. 

A  shaded  line  (Fig.  2)  is  one  made  by  press- 
ing on  the  pen  as  it  is  moved. 


PLACE    OF    THE    SHADE. 

I.  On  the  Straight  Line.  —  Whether  diminishing  or  in- 
creasing, the  shade  on  the  straight  line  is  placed  wholly  on 
the  left,  as  illustrated  by  the  dotted  lines  in  the  illustration. 

Diminishing  (Fig.  1),  which 
begins  heaviest  at  the  top,  and 
gradually  diminishes  to  its  close. 
To  make  the  top  square,  care 
must  be  taken  to  spread  the 
points  of  the  pen  to  the  width 
desired  before  commencing  the  downward  movement  j  theD  in 
descending,  gradually  lessen  the  pressure. 


SHADING. 


39 


Increasing  (Tig.  2),  which  is  begun  at  the  base-line,  and 
gradually  becomes  heavier  to  its  close. 

To  make  the  end  of  the  increasing  shade  square,  the  down- 
ward movement  must  be  stopped  before  the  pressure  is  released, 
and  the  points  of  the  pen  are  allowed  to  come  together. 

Where  there  is  a  turn  at  the  base  (Figs.  3,  4),  the  pressure 
should  be  wholly  released  before  reaching  the  turn. 

Where  there  is  a  turn  at  the  top  and  base  (Fig.  5),  the  shade 
diminishes  equally  towards  the  turns,  being  heaviest  in  the 
middle. 

If  the  movement  of  the  pen  in  making  these  shades  is 
carefully  watched,  it  will  be  seen  how  perfectly  natural  it  is 
that  the  left  point  of  the  pen  should  spread  out  to  form  them, 
while  the  right  point  descends  on  a  perfectly  straight  line  and 
the  usual  slant. 

II.  Shade  on  the  Oval.  — (1.)  On 
the  left  side  of  the  Direct  Oval  (Fig. 
2),  the  dotted  line  shows  that  the  shade 
is  formed  wholly  on  the  left  side  of  the 
true  curve.  This  evidently  results  from  the  action  of  the 
])en's  points,  and  produces  true, beauty  of  form;  for  the  eye 
naturally  compares  the  inside  of  the  curve  on  the  left  side, 
which  bounds  the  enclosed  space,  with  the  curve  that  forms 
the  right  boundary. 

(2.)  On  the  right  side  of  the  Indi- 
rect Oval,  the  shade  is  formed  wholly 
on  the  right  side  of  the  true  curve. 
The  pressure  must  be  made  to  fall  on 
the  left  point  of  the  pen,  leaving  the  right  point  at  liberty  to 
spread  and  form  the  shade.  In  this  case,  also,  the  eye  is 
satisfied  with  the  result,  as  the  inner  and  opposite  lines  of  the 
curves  bounding  the  oval  are  found  perfectly  symmetrical. 

(3.)  In  the  Capital  Stem 
(Fig.  2),  the  shade  falls  wholly 
on  the  right  of  the  curve.  The 
right  point  of  the  pen  begins  the 


40  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

down-stroke ;  but  the  roll  of  the  hand  throws  the  pressure  on 
to  the  left  point,  owing  to  the  direction  of  the  shade,  and  the 
right  is  left  free  to  spread  and  form  the  shade.  The  inner 
curves  are  thus  kept  sjanmetrical. 

Execution  of  Shades.  —  All  shades  in  capitals,  to  have  a 
smooth  and  pleasing  effect,  must  be  made  by  a  quick  and  firm 
downward  movement  of  the  whole  hand,  and  not  merely  by 
pressure  of  the  fingers. 

All  shades  should  increase  and  diminish  gradually.  On  the 
ovals,  it  is  generally  heaviest  at  the  point  of  extreme  curva- 
ture. 

The  shades  must  not  be  sudden  or  abrupt,  and  great  care 
must  be  used  that  the  shaded  curves  are  not  straightened. 

The  Dot,  or  Bulb,  is  sometimes  preferred  for  the  beginning 
or  finish  of  letters.  It  is  here  given  of  larger  size  than  is 
proper  for  ordinary  writing,  for  the  sake  of  illustrating  its 
true  form.  Special  pains  must  be  taken  in  forming  it  to  give 
it  a  handsome  appearance. 

Figs.  1  and  4  illus- 
trate it  as  the  finish 
of  an  up-stroke.  To 
make  it,  give  a  twist 
to  the  pen  as  the  pres- 
sure is  gradually  increased,  that  it  may  have  the  shape  of  a 
pear. 

Figs.  2,  5,  and  6  illustrate  it  when  preferred  for  the  finish  of 
a  capital  stem  or  other  down-strokes.  In  making  this,  carry 
the  fine  line  up  and  over ;  then  give  a  twist  to  the  pen  towards 
the  left  as  the  pressure  is  suddenly  increased  and  gradually 
diminished. 

Fig.  3  illustrates  it  when  preferred  for  the  commencement 
of  a  letter.  The  method  of  formation  is  also  by  a  twist  of 
the  pen,  as  before. 

Shades,  where  used.  —  In  ordinary  writing,  shades  are 
used  on  the  ovals  of  a,  g,  q,  and  on  the  stems  of  t,  d,  p,  q. 
The.lower  part  of  I  and  b  is  often  strengthened,  and  sometimes 


THEORY    OF    PENMANSHIP.  41 

the  last  down-stroke  in  m  and  the  first  in  w,  when  it  has  a 
point  at  the  top. 

When  double  letters,  which  are  usually  shaded,  occur,  the 
practice  is  various.  Sometimes  both  are  made  equally  heavy; 
sometimes  the  second  is  made  only  half  as  heavy  as  the  first: 
one's  own  taste  must  decide. 

There  is  seldom  more  than  one  shade  used  in  a  capital 
letter. 


THEORY   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

Writing  is  the  result  of  movement  subjected  to  law.  The 
law  is  determined  by  the  forms  required  to  be  made.  Hence 
there  must  be  definite  knowledge  of  the  forms  to  be  made. 
This  requires  analysis,  —  not  merely  the  taking  of  the  forms  to 
pieces,  but  such  a  separation  of  them  as  indicates  the  function 
of  each  and  the  formation  of  the  whole.  Thus  letters  are 
found  to  consist  of  common  parts  made  by  similar  movements, 
the  knowledge  of  which  is  available  for  all  the  letters  in  which 
they  occur,  hence  classified  as  principles.  The  principles, 
again,  have  common  parts,  —  the  main  lines,  the  lines  used 
merely  for  connection,  and  different  ways  of  joining  these 
lines.  Hence  a  true  and  practical  analysis  observes  also  the 
elements,  that  the  form  they  compose  may  be  thoroughly 
known. 

A  true  analysis  must  be  exhaustive,  setting  forth  the  pre- 
cise number  of  forms  and  their  modifications,  distinguished 
by  the  movements  which  produce  them.  That  analysis  is 
false,  which,  under  pretence  of  simplifying,  classes  forms  made 
by  entirely  different  movements  under  the  same  head. 

A  good  system  must  be  carefully  graded,  beginning  with 
single  fundamental  forms ;  then  combining  them,  keeping 
constantly  in  view  their  similarity;  and  afterwards  advancing 
to  words  and  sentences.     The  most  important  part  must  be 


42  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

embraced  within  a  few  numbers  for  the  instruction  of  those 
whose  time  for  education  is  limited ;  while  a  larger  and 
sufficient  variety  must  be  provided  for  those  who  enjoy  greater 
advantages. 

Under  the  head  of  Business  Writing,  we  have  explained 
our  reasons  for  using  the  less  simple  forms  for  the  standard 
letters  ;  namely,  because  the  simpler  are  contained  in  the  more 
elaborate  :  and  hence  the  acquirement  of  the  latter  enables  the 
practised  writer  to  form  his  own  st}Tle  in  accordance  with  his 
natural  taste.  In  a  word,  the  acquisition  of  the  standard 
forms  trains  the  eye  most  effectually  in  the  appreciation  of 
curves,  proportions,  and  beauty,  and  the  hand  in  their  execu- 
tion, hence  giving  control  over  all  other  forms,  and  developing 
the  power  of  originating  them. 

Our  theory  of  penmanship  would  still  be  incomplete  should 
we  neglect  to  state  what  may  reasonably  be  anticipated  from 
school-training  in  this  branch.  Only  extensive  practice  can 
form  a  business  hand.  There  is  not  time  enough  given  in 
school  to  this  study  to  enable  the  scholar  to  acquire  and  to 
become  confirmed  in  a  free  hand.  The  few  who  have  peculiar 
natural  aptitude  may  do  so;  but  for  the  great  majority  we  can 
only  hope  to  lay  such  a  solid  foundation,  that,  should  they 
ever  have  sufficient  practice,  they  may  then  easily  acquire  it. 


CLASSIFICATION   OE   LETTERS. 

In  introducing  the  letters  for  practice,  it  will  be  noticed 
that  they  are  not  taken  up  in  their  alphabetical  order:  they 
are,  nevertheless,  arranged  on  a  definite  plan,  —  that  of  group- 
ing them  according  to  their  predominant  form,  and  therefore 
unity  of  movement. 

The  straight  line,  with  its  appropriate  slant,  is  the  prevailing 
form  in  the  small  letters,  being  found  in  all  except  four.  The 
short  letters  formed  from  it,  as  combined  with   curves  in  the 


Plate  I 


)Jiut;.ou.  Duntou  &  ^tTtim*r$ 

liifih'sis  tun/  Class  ifhccdion  of    Letters. 


z 


ELEMENTS 
hi 


V 


■ihrli/u-.  wet  Turn  Hi.tlit  Cut  i  Left  i  iirvr .  Upper  Turn. 

PR  I  N  CI  PLES. 


I-  //  //   ///  ~77 


SMALL      LETTERS. 

Ill         1  III    1-     1  2      3  -'      -'      3  3  I  3 3       I  IV  IV  v  ui         n  IV    V   III      IV    HI 

II      IV  IV        II  Ml      II 


CAPITALS. 


SCALE    OF    PROPORTIONS. 


43 


first  three  principles,  are,  therefore,  first  given.  The  four  short 
letters  having  a  curved  down-stroke  come  next;  then  /•  and  .<?, 
which  are  exceptional,  but  still  short.  These  are  followed  by 
the  stem  letters,  which  require  a  partially-extended  movement. 
Lastly,  the  upper  and  lower  looped  letters,  requiring  fully- 
extended  movement  above  and  below  the  base-line. 

The  capitals  are  arranged  according  to  the  same  plan.  A 
glance  at  the  accompanying  plate  will  suffice  to  show  the 
similarity  of  form,  and  therefore  of  movement,  required  in  the 
several  groups.  The  first  six  are  based  on  the  capital  stem 
and  its  modifications,  the  seventh  on  the  direct,  and  the 
eighth  on  the  indirect,  oval. 

After  the  letters  have  been  thoroughly  learned,  they  are 
introduced  in  their  alphabetical  order. 


SCALE   OF   PROPORTIONS. 


As  there  are  short,  partially-extended,  fully-extended,  and 
capital  letters,  there  must  be  some  definite  scale  of  proportions 
if  they  are  to  be  made  respectively  of  uniform  size.  Now,  the 
longer  letters  are  made  of  about  the  same  size,  whether  the 
writing  is  larger  or  smaller,  within  moderate  limits.  If 
the  hand  is  larger,  the  fully-extended  letter  and  capitals  are 
three  times  the  height  of  the  short  letters ;  if  smaller,  four 
times  the  height. 


This   gives    rise    to  the   scale    of   thirds   and   the   scale   of 
fourths.     The  first   is   made  by  drawing  six  lines,  including 


44  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

five  height  spaces ;  the  second,  by  ruling  eight  lines,  includ- 
ing seven  spaces.  The  short  letters  in  both  cases  are  written 
between  the  middle  pair  of  lines. 

In  the  scale  of  thirds,  the  stem  letters  extend  two  spaces 
above  the  base-line,  the  upper  loops  and  capitals  three  spaces. 
Below  the  base-line  the  stems  extend  one  space  and  a  half, 
the  loops  two  spaces.  In  the  scale  of  fourths,  these  letters, 
though  the  same  height  as  the  others  respectively,  yet,  owing 
to  the  smaller  size  of  the  short  letters,  extend,  the  stems  two 
spaces  and  a  half  above  the  base-line,  and  two  spaces  below; 
while  the  loops  and  capitals  extend  four  spaces  above,  and 
three  below. 


DEFINITIONS  OF  TEEMS  AND  FORMS. 

A  dot  is  the  smallest  mark  that  can  be  made.     Frequently 
ft  bulb  is  called  a  dot :   it  is  described  where  it  occurs. 
A  line  is  the  path  of  a  moving  dot. 

Lines  are  of  two  kinds,  —  straight  and  curved.     They  may 
have  three  directions,  —  upright,  slanting,  and  level. 

A  straight  line  is  one  formed  by  the  dot  mov- 
ing in  the  same  direction. 

It  is  upright  when  the  direction  is   that  of  a 
plumb-line  (Fig.  3). 

It  is  slanting  if  inclined  at  any  angle  (Fig.  2). 
It   is   level  when    its    direction    is    parallel   to   the   horizon 

(Kg-  1). 

A  curved  line  is  one  formed  by  the  dot  con- 
stantly changing  its  direction. 

A  right  curve  is  one  that  curves  towards  the 
right  (Fig.  1). 

A  left  curve  is  one  that  curves  towards  the 
left  (Fig.  2).  These  both  resemble  the  lower  right  and  the 
upper  left  curves  of  an  oval,  as  shown  in  the  diagram. 


DEFINITIONS    OF    TERMS    AND    FORMS. 


45 


A  wave-liue,  or  double  curve,  is  one  formed 

by  the  union  of  two  curves,  whose  curvatures 

are  in  opposite  directions. 

Curved  lines  may   be  written  in  the  same 

directions  as  those  named  above   for  straight 

lines,  —  upright,  slanting,  and  level. 

The  base-line  is  the  level   line, 

real    or    imaginary,   on   which    the 

letters  are  written.  —  See   the  line 

under  m. 

The  top  line  is  the  line,  real  or  imaginary,  parallel  to  the 

base-line,  to  which  the  short  letters  extend. 

Up-strokes  are  those  made  by  an  upward  movement,  as  in  m. 

Down-strokes  are  those  made  by  a  downward  movement,  as 
in  m. 

Main  lines  are  the  essential  lines  of  letters,  embracing  all 
the  down-strokes  ;  to  which  must  be  added  the  second  up-stroke 
in  0,  b,  v,  and  the  third  in  w. 

Connecting-lines  are  those  used  to  connect  the  main  lines  in 
letters  or  words ;  and  are  always  curves,  either  slanting  or 
horizontal. 

Parallel  lines  are  those  which  are  equally  distant  through- 
out, as  in  the  down-strokes  of  m. 

Similar  curves  are  those  whose  curvature  undergoes  the  same 
changes.  Similar  curves,  when  of  the  same  size,  cannot  be  par- 
allel to  each  other;  but  they  may  have  the  same  slant,  as  in  m. 

The  slant  of  the  down-strokes 
should  be  an  inclination  of  fifty-two 
degrees  to  the  base-line.  This  will 
be  found  the  most  convenient  com- 
promise between  legibility  on  the  one 
hand,  and  rapidity  of  execution  on  the  other. 

Upper  and  lower  angles  are  the  join- 
ings of  two  lines  which  have  different 
directions  in  a  point  at  the  top  and  base 
lines  respectively. 


l, poer  Anp le 


46 


MANUAL    OF    PENMANSHIP. 


Upper  and  lower  turns  are  the  joinings  of 
two  lines  which  have  different  directions  by  a 
continuous  movement,  which  forms  a  narrow 
curve  at  the  top  and  base  lines  respective- 
ly. A  straight  line  and  a  curve,  or  two  curves,  may  be  thus 
united. 

A  space  in  height  is  the  vertical  dis- 
tance between  the  base  and  top  line,  — 
the  height  of  it. 
A  space  in  width  is  the  distance  between  the  upper  points 
m  u.  The  letter  u,  therefore,  is  to  be  taken  as  the  standard 
of  measurement  for  a  hand  of  any  size.  In  a  condensed  or  a 
large  hand,  the  space  in  width  is  less  than  the  space  in  height; 
in  a  running  hand,  equal  to  it,  or  greater. 

The  short  letters  are  those  which  are  written  between  the 
top  and  base  lines,  including  r  and  s. 

The    stem-letters    are    those   which    have    a 
straight   line   extended  beyond   the   top  or  the 
base  line. 
They  are  four  in  number,  —  t,  d,  p,  q. 

Loops  are  those  parts  of 
letters  which  are  formed 
by  the  crossing  of  two  op- 
posite curves. 

The  looped  stem  is  shown  (Fig.  2). 

An  oval  is  a  form  con- 
tained by  similar  and  op- 
posite curves  (Fig.  1). 

It  is  a  direct  oval  when 
the   downward    movement 
precedes  the  upward  (Fig.  2). 

It  is  an  indirect  or  inverted  oval  when  the  upward  precedes 
the  downward  (Fig.  3). 


ELEMENTS    AND    PRINCIPLES. 


47 


ELEMENTS    AND    PRINCIPLES. 

ANALYSIS    OF    LETTERS. 

Analysis  in  penmanship  is  the  separation  of  compound 
forms  into  their  simple  constituent  parts.  Its  object  is  to  pre- 
sent a  single  point  to  the  mind,  that  it  may  be  more  accu- 
rately known,  and  thus  made  more  available  as  a  standard  for 
execution  and  criticism.  Thus,  by  analysis,  knowledge  is 
rendered  no  longer  general  and  vague,  but  particular  and 
definite. 

THE   PARTS    OF  LETTERS. 


THE   E1VE    ELEMENTS. 


THE    SIX   PRINCIPLES    OK    THE    SMALL    LETTERS. 


THE    THREE    PRINCIPLES    OF    THE    CAPITALS. 


Two  alphabets  arc  used  in  writing,  —  the  small  and  tlm 
capital.     Each  contains  twenty-six  letters. 

The  small  letters  are  formed  almost  entirely  from  six  prin- 
ciples, the  capitals  from  three. 

A  Principle  is  a  form  common  to  two  or  more  letters,  ami 
consists  of  a  main  line  and  such  connecting-lines  as  are  joined 
to  it  by  turns. 


48  .     MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIK 

The  principles  are  formed  from  five  elements. 

An  Element  is  a  form  common  to  two  or  more  principles. 

The  elements  and  principles  are  somewhat  modified  in 
form  or  slant  in  some  letters.  If  this  modification  can  be 
executed  by  a  corresponding  modification  of  movement,  we 
consider  it  to  be  the  same  element  or  principle  modified, 
and  not  another  element  or  principle.  Thus,  if  the  bend  of  a 
curve  is  to  the  right,  and  it  is  on  a  certain  slant,  we  call  it  the 
third  element ;  if  it  is  made  to  curve  more  or  less,  or  to  change 
its  slant  in  some  letters,  since  these  changes  can  be  effected 
by  a  slight  change  of  the  movement  required  to  produce  a 
right  curve,  we  call  the  form  in  each  case  the  third  element. 

If  this  method  be  philosophical,  that  analysis  of  the  letters 
is  false,  which,  in  order  to  give  the  appearance  of  simplicity 
to  a  system,  classifies  utterly  opposite  forms  under  the  same 
head. 

The  advantage  of  this  analysis  into  principles  is,  that  it  is 
necessary  to  know  nine  forms  only,  and  their  modifications, 
instead  of  making  a  separate  study  of  fifty-two ;  whilst  the 
distinction  of  the  elements  leads  to  the  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  principles. 

Remark  1.  —  When  the  principles  are  once  thoroughly 
known,  it  is  not  necessary  to  refer  any  more  to  the  elements. 

2.  —  If  any  teacher  prefers  to  use  the  descriptive  names  of 
the  elements,  instead  of  designating  them  by  their  numbers, 
it  is  just  as  well,  and  for  their  scholars,  when  beginning,  per- 
haps better.     In  describing  them,  therefore,  we  give  both. 

THE    FIVE    ELEMENTS. 


The  numbers  designating  the  Elements  are  given  in  Roman  ; 
those  of  the  Principles,  in  common  figures. 

The  forms  of  the  elements  and  principles  and  the  move- 
ments required  to  execute   them  are   fully  described   in   con- 


ELEMENTS   AND   PRINCIPLES.  49 

nection  with  the  letters  in  which  they  occur.  We  shall  here 
give  merely  a  description  of  them  for  convenience  of  reference, 
and  add  a  few  remarks  on  them  which  will  be  found  very 
useful  to  the  teacher  in  enabling  him  thoroughly  to  appreciate 
the  principles  formed  from  them. 

Element  I.  is  the  Slanting  Straight  Line. 
This  is  the  fundamental  line  in  writing.  It 
forms  the  main  line,  in  whole  or  in  part,  in 
twenty-two  out  of  the  twenty-six  small  letters ;  in  all,  except 
r,  e,  o,  s.  As  soon  as  the  scholars  can  make  it  fine,  really 
straight,  and  with  uniform  slant,  their  writing  begins  to  look 
well.  To  these  three  points,  therefore,  the  teacher's  attention 
should  always  be  especially  directed. 

Element  II.  is  the  Lower  Turn. 
The  form  of  this  is  oval.  It  is 
Li^fi^^^H  important  to  observe  that  the  bend 
of  the  turn  is  wholly  on  the  left  side  before  the  downward 
direction  of  the  movement  is  changed.  In  a  very  bold,  large 
hand,  this  element  begins  one-fourth  from  the  base-line ;  in 
smaller  hands,  very  near  it. 

It  is  important  to  notice  that  the  width  of  the  turn  depends 
upon  the  height  at  which  it  begins.  The  sooner  the  turn 
begins,  the  broader  it  is ;  and  the  nearer  the  base-line,  the 
narrower,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.   (Fig.  2.) 

Element  III.  is  the  Right  Curve. 
This  is  the  right  side  of  an  oval,  and  may  be 
known  by  its  bending  outwards  towards  the 
right  hand.  This  curve  is  written  both  upwards. and  down- 
wards, and  is  generally  a  connecting-line,  though  sometimes 
the  whole  or  part  of  a  main  line,  as  in  o,  s. 

Element  IV.  is  the  Left  Curve. 
This  is  the  left  side  of  an  oval,  and  may  be  known 
by  it3  bending  outwards  towards  the  left  hand. 
This  curve   is  written  both  upwards  and  downwards,  and 
is  generally  a  connecting-line,  but  sometimes    the  whole   or 
part  of  a  main  line,  as  in  c,  e,  o. 

4 


50 


MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 


Element  V.  is  the  Upper  Turn. 

In  this  turn,  the  bend  of  the  turn  is  wholly  on 
the  right  side  after  the  direction  of  the  move- 
ment has  been  changed.  It  can  scarcely  be  too  often  repeated, 
that  the  up-stroke  must  be  carried  well  over  to  form  this  turn 
correctly. 


THE  SIX  PRINCIPLES   OF   THE    SMALL   LETTERS. 


The  First  Principle  is  the  straight  line  and  its  connect- 
ing-line, the  right  curve,  joined  together  by  the  lower  turn. 
Its  parts,  therefore,  are  Elements  I.,  II..  III. 

It  is   found   in   ten   letters,  —  in   i,  r,  t,  it,  the 
second    part  of  a,  d,  k,  iv,  and  the  lower  part  of 
b,  I.     When  the  straight  line  is  higher  than   the 
short  letters,  the  principle  is  said  to  be  extended. 

The  Second  Principle  is  the   left   curve,  as 
connecting-line,  joined  to  the  straight  main  line 
by  the   upper  turn.      Its  parts  are  Elements  IV., 
V.,  I. 

It  is  found  in  three  letters,  — in  n,  m,  and  the  upper  part  of  z 
The  Third  Principle  is  the  straight  man- 
line,  joined  to  a  left  and  a  right  curve  as  con- 
necting-lines, one  on  each  side,  by  an  upper  and 
a  lower  turn.     Its  parts  are  Elements  TV.,  V.,  I.,  II.,  III. 

It  is  found  in  eight  letters,  —  in  v,  x,  the  first  part  of  w,  y, 
snid  the  last  part  of  ?i,  m,  h,  p. 

The  Fourth  Principle  is  an  oval  form,  modi- 
fied by  a  pointed  projection  on  the  upper  right. 
This  is  for  convenience  in  joining  it  to    the 
second  part  of  the  letter.     Its  parts  are  Elements  IV.,  II.f 
III.      It  is  found  in  four  letters,  —  a,  d,  q,  g. 


ELEMENTS   AND    PRINCIPLES. 


51 


The  Fifth  Principle  is  the  Upper  Looped 
Stem.  The  up-stroke  is  the  connecting-line, 
joined  by  a  narrow  turn  to  the  down-stroke,  which 
is  the  main  line,  and  consists  of  a  very  slight  left 
curve,  ending  below  the  crossing  in  a  straight  line.  Hence  its 
parts  are  Elements  III.,  V.,  IV.,  I. 

It  is  found  in  five  letters, — b,  h,  k,  I,  and  the  upper  part 
of  /. 

The  Sixth  Principle  is  the  Lower  Looped 
Stem.  The  down-stroke,  consisting  of  a 
straight  line  changed  to  a  very  slight  right 
curve  below  the  crossing,  is  the  main  line. 
It  is  joined  by  a  turn  to  the  left  curve.  Its  parts,  therefore, 
are  Elements  L,  III.,  II.,  IV. 

It  is  found  in  four  letters,  — j,  (j,  y,  z. 


THE    THREE   PRINCIPLES    OF   THE    CAPITALS. 


The  Seventh  Principle  is  the  Capital  Stem.     It  is  a 

double  curve,  finished  with  an  oval.  This  principle  is  variously 
modified,  as  is  fully  explained  below  in  the  description  of  the 
letters. 

It  is  found  in  fifteen  letters,  — A,  B,  D,  F,  G,  H,  I,  K,  Z, 
M  N,  P,  72,  S,  T. 

The  Eighth  Principle  is  the  Direct  Oval. 

It  i  s  found  in  five  letters,  —  C,  D,  E,   G,  0. 

The  Ninth  Principle  is  the  Inverted  Oval. 

It  is  found  in  seven  letters,  —  Q,   U,   V,   W,  JT,   Y,  Z. 

Remark.  —  Some  parts  of  the  capitals  are  formed  from  the 
principles  of  the  small  letters,  as  is  fully  explained  in  the 
analysis  of  the  letters  in  which  they  occur 


52 


MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


FORMATION   OF   ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,   AND 

LETTERS. 


Element  I.,  or  the  slanting  straight 
line,  is  the  fundamental  line  in  writ- 
ing the  small  letters.  It  is  found  in 
twenty-two  out  of  the  twenty-six ;  in  all,  except  c,  e,  o,  s. 
In  five  of  the  principles  it  forms  the  stroke  immediately  above 
the  base-line. 

It  is  also  the  simplest  form,  and  is  made  by  the  simplest 
movement :  therefore  every  system  ought  to  begin  with  it. 
It  is  the  first  copy  recommended  for  practice. 

Remark.  —  It  will  be  found  convenient  to  set  apart  a  space 
of  three  or  four  feet  in  length  on  the  blackboard  for  illustra- 
tions of  penmanship.  Let  it  be  selected  where  it  can  be  best 
seen  by  all  the  scholars.  On  it  rule  the  scale  of  thirds,  the 
distance  between  the  lines  being  three  inches.  (See  diagram.) 
The  boxes  may  be  made  by  ruling  vertical  lines  a  little  more 
than  ten  inches  apart. 

Divide  the  top  and  base  lines 
into  four  equal  parts  by  placing 
three  dots  on  each,  and  show 
how  the  straight  lines  are 
placed  at  even  distances,  and 
made  with  the  same  slant  by 
writing  them  from  the  upper 
dots  and  corner  to  the  lower  corner  and  dots,  as  shown  by  the 
illustration.  The  other  copies  may  be  illustrated  in  the  same 
way. 

The  advantage  of  this  boxing  is  its  aid  to  the  scholar  in 
acquiring  correct  judgment  of  spacing  and  slant;  and  to  the 
teacher,  giving  clear  and  definite  illustrations. 

When  two  or  more  letters  are  given  in  combination,  it  is  to 
show  the  modifications  necessary  to  effect  it. 


ELEMENTS,    PllLNCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  53 

In  all  books  ruled  in  columns,  the  scholar  should  be  required 
to  write  down  the  column,  and  not  across  the  page,  as  he  is 
thus  perfected  in  one  thing  at  a  time. 

Knowledge.  —  Matter.  —  (1.)  There  are  four  slanting 
straight  lines  in  each  box.  (2.)  The  first  begins  at  the  top 
line,  one-fourth  the  distance  across,  and  descends  into  the 
fewer  left  corner;  the  second,  one-fourth  farther,  or  in  the  mid- 
dle; the  third,  one-fourth  farther,  or  half  way  to  the  corner; 
the  fourth  begins  in  the  upper  right  corner  :  in  a  word,  the 
lines  are  placed  at  even  distances  apart.  (3.)  All  touch  the 
top  and  the  base  lines.  (4.)  All  are  uniform  in  slant. 
(5.)   The  lines  are  to  be  very  fine. 

All  these  particulars  should  be  drawn  from  the  scholars 
by  questions  whilst  they  examine  the  copy. 

Manner.  —  (1.)  Position  and  penholding  are  to  be  correct. 
{2.)  A  simple  downward  slanting  movement  of  the  pen  is  to 
be  made  by  bending  the  first  two  fingers  at  the  second  joint, 
and  making  the  thumb  yield  at  the  wrist,  and  by  bending  at 
the  first  joint.  (3.)  The  pen  is  to  be  held  as  gently  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  paper  touched  lightly,  without  pressure. 

Criticism.  —  Each  of  the  eight  points  given  above  should 
be  criticised  in  turn.  The  faults  will  be  found  on  one  side  or 
the  other  of  that  which  is  correct.  Thus,  if  there  are  to  be 
four  lines  in  a  box,  some  scholars  will  make  too  many ;  some, 
too  few.  Again  :  if  all  the  written  strokes  arc  to  touch  the  top 
line,  some  will  be  found  above  it,  some  below  it. 

The  faults  may  be  discovered  by  a  few  simple  questions, 
leading  the  scholars  to  criticise  their  own  work.  First,  what 
is  right?  second,  how  many  have  it  wrong?  third,  in  what 
respect  is  it  wrong?  and,  lastly,  what  must  be  done  to  make 
it  right  at  the  next  attempt? 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  straightness  and  slant  of  the 
down-strokes.  (2.)  Making  the  lines  fine.  (3.)  They  should 
be  placed  at  even  distances  apart.  (4.)  They  should  touch 
the  top  and  base  lines. 

Remark.  —  If  it  be  thought  that  the  above  method  is  too 


54  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

complicated  and  elaborate,  we  reply,  that  it  is  important  to 
start  right.  When  the  teacher  insists,  at  the  start,  on  exact 
compliance  with  his  directions,  having  made  his  instruction  so 
plain  that  it  is  fairly  within  their  comprehension,  he  places  ' 
his  scholars  on  the  right  track.  Something  is  learned  in  each 
successive  copy  which  is  available  for  the  future.  For  instance, 
beginning  or  ending  in  the  corners,  writing  down  the  column, 
placing  the  letters  in  the  boxes  as  they  are  in  the  copy,  touch- 
ing top  and  base  lines,  and  making  fine  lines,  —  this  is  taught 
in  the  first  copy.  If  carefully  enforced  there,  these  particulars 
hold  good  for  all  succeeding  lessons,  and  will  only  need  to  be 
occasionally  reviewed  and  criticised.  Hence  the  instruction 
really  embraces  fewer  points  as  we  advance. 

Element  III.,  the  right 
curve,  as  connecting-line,  is 
joined  to  the  straight  line  in  a  point  at  the  top,  forming  with 
it  the  Upper  Angle. 

Knowledge.  —  Matter.  —  (1.)  The  first  line  is  the  right 
curve  written  upwards :  the  second  is  a  slanting  straight  line 
written  downwards.  ("2.)  Begin  in  the  lower  left  corner,  and 
make  a  very  slight  right  curve  to  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the 
box  ;  stop,  and  then  descend  with  a  slanting  straight  line,  as  in 
copy  one.  Be  sure  to  make  a  point  at  the  top.  (3.)  For  the 
second  angle,  begin  at  the  middle  of  the  bottom  of  the  box, 
and  carry  the  right  curve  to  the  corner;  stop,  and  descend 
with  slanting  straight  line,  as  before. 

Illustration*.  —  In  teaching  this  copy,  much 
pains  must  be  taken  to  impress  on  the  scholars' 
minds  the  idea  of  the  right  curve.  One  of  the 
best  methods  is  to  draw  a  straight  line  of  the  required  slant 
on  the  blackboard,  and  then  draw  the  curve  from  one  point 
to  the  other.     Be  careful  to  make  the  curve  very  slight. 

The  scholars  must  also  be  shown  that  the  down-stroke 
slants  less  than  the  up-stroke,  and  joins  it  in  a  point,  not  run- 
ning back  on  it  at  all. 

Manner.  —  (1.)  Position  and  penholding  are  to  be  correct. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  55 

(2.)  The  right  curve  is  to  be  made  by  a  slanting  upward 
movement  of  the  pen,  sinking  it  a  little  downwards  towards 
the  right  as  it  ascends.  This  is  accomplished  by  straighten- 
ing the  thumb  at  the  first  joint,  so  as  to  push  the  pen  up;  and 
straightening  the  first  two  fingers  at  the  second  joint,  allow- 
ing them  to  yield  to  the  push  of  the  thumb.  The  whole  hand 
should  at  the  same  time  move  forward  a  little;  the  third  and 
fourth  fingers,  which  are  used  to  steady  the  hand,  sliding  a 
little  towards  the  right  on  the  paper. 

Criticism.  —  This  should  embrace,  as  before,  the  particulars 
of  knowledge  applied  in  their  work. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Joining  the  up-stroke  and  down- 
stroke  in  a  point,  and  keeping  the  angle  open  to  the  point. 
(2.)  The  up-strokes  and  down-strokes  touching  the  top  and 
base  lines  at  even  distances  across  the  box. 

The  straight  line  is  here 
joined  to  Element  IV.,  the 
left  curve,  in  a  point  at  the  base-line,  forming  writh  it  the 
Lower  Angle. 

Teach,  illustrate,  and  criticise,  as  in  the  previous  copy.  Be 
careful  especially  to  enforce  the  change  in  movement  necessary 
to  make  the  left  curve. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Joining  the  down-stroke  and  up- 
stroke in  a  point,  and  keeping  the  angle  open  from  the  point. 
(2.)  The  down-strokes  and  up-strokes  touching  the  top  and 
base  lines  at  even  distances  across  the  box. 

THE   FIRST   PRINCIPLE. 

The  straight  line  is  here 
joined  to  Element  III.,  the 
right  curve,  by  a  short  curve  forming  the  Lower  Turn, 
Element  II.,  on  the  base-line. 

This  is  the  First  Principle.  Its  form  is  angular,  with  the 
point  changed  to  a  turn. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  the  F  rst  Principle  are  Elements 
L,  II.,  III. 


56  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

Knowledge.  —  Matter.  —  (1.)  The  slanting  straight 
line  descends  nearly  to  the  base-line ;  (2)  then  turns  as  short 
as  possible,  (3)  and  joins  a  right  curve. 

Manner.  —  Make  the  down-stroke  as  directed  for  the 
straight  line  ;  when  near  the  base-line,  move  the  pen  down- 
wards and  forwards  till  the  base-line  is  reached  ;  then,  without 
stopping,  commence  the  upward  movement  at  once. 


Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  straightness  and  slant  of  the 
down-stroke.  Place  the  first  three  forms  of  the  diagram  on 
the  blackboard:  Fig.  1,  curved  down-stroke;  Fig.  2,  too  much 
slant ;  Fig.  3,  too  upright. 

To  secure  the  straightness,  be  sure  the  turn. is  not  begun  too 
soon.     Illustrate  this  on  the  board. 

(2.)  The  width  of  the  turn.  It  must  not  be  too  broad,  on 
the  one  hand  (Figs.  4  and  5)  ;  nor  pointed,  on  the  other 
(Fig.  6). 

The  first  fault  is  caused  by  turning  too  soon  on  the  left 
(Fig.  4),  or  by  sagging  on  the  right  side  (Fig.  5).  Illustrate 
on  the  board. 

The  second  figure  in  the  box  given  above  is  the  letter  i. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  i  are 
Element  III.,  First  Principle,  and  a 
dot  placed  above  it. 

Formation. — Join  the  parts  in  a  point  at  the  top  line, 
and  place  a  dot  at  one  space  ;  that  is,  at  the  height  of  the  letter 
above  it  on  the  slant  of  the  down-stroke. 

Critical  Points.  —  Review  all  the  particulars  of  knowl- 
edge already  acquired  in  preceding  copies  as  to  the  upper 
angle,  the  formation  of  the  curves,  and  straightness  of  the 
down-stroke,  which  are  to  be  made  use  of  here. 

The  even  distances  across  the  box  at  the  top  and  base  lines 
will  be  found  very  useful,  and  should  be  carefully  observed  in 
forming  the  letters. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  57 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  u  are 
Element  III.  and  First  Principle 
repeated. 

Formation.  — Join  the  parts  in  points  at  the  top  line, 
keeping  the  angles  open.  Begin  the  letter  in  the  lower  left 
corner,  and  end  it  in  the  upper  right.  Observe  the  Critical 
Points  of  the  First  Principle,  given  above. 

Remark.  —  We  refer  thus  to  the  Critical  Points  of  the  First 
Principle,  not  only  because  we  thus  save  space,  but  especially 
because  we  wish  to  impress  upon  the  teacher's  mind  the  great 
value  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Principles  and  their 
Critical  Points.  They  are  the  standard  by  which  all  the  letters 
can  be  criticised.  How  much  easier  is  it  to  learn  six  forms 
and  a  few  modifications  than  twenty-six  ? 

The  width  of  u  between  the  upper  points  is  called  a  space, 
and  is  used  as  the  measure  of  width  for  all  the  other  letters. 

This  is  a  good  opportunity  for  impressing  on  the  scholars' 
minds  that  the  width  of  letters  depends  on  the  slant  of  the 
up-stroke. 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  writing  the 
First  Principle  on  the  board,  and  then 
adding  additional  up-strokes  to  show  in- 
creased or  lessened  width.  If,  then,  they  have  written  the  u 
too  wide,  they  must  make  the  second  up-stroke  slant  less  ;  if 
too  narrow,  more. 

Critical  Points. — Those  of  the  upper  angle  and  of  the 
First  Principle. 

THE   SECOND   PRINCIPLE. 

The  left  curve,  Element  IV.,  is 
here  joined  to  the  straight  line   by 
a  short  curve  forming  the  Upper  Turn,  Element  V. 

This  is  the  Second  Principle  :  its  form  is  angular,  with 
the  point  changed  to  a  turn. 

Analysis.  —  The  pi  f s  of  the  Second  Principle  are  Ele- 
ments IV.,  V.,  I. 


58  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

Knowledge.  —  Matter.  —  (1.)  The  left  curve  is  carried 
well  over ;  (2)  then  turns  as  short  as  possible,  (3)  and  joins  a 
slanting  straight  line.  (4.)  The  lines  touch  at  even  distances 
across  the  box  at  the  top  and  base  lines. 

Manner.  —  Carry  the  curve  well  over  at  the  top  line ;  then 
move  slightly  forward  and  downward  for  the  turn,  and  finish 
with  the  slanting  straight  line. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  straightness  and  slant  of  the 
down-stroke. 

This  can  only  be  secured  by  carrying  the  up-stroke  well  over. 

This  point  is  so  important,  that  we  give 
the  accompanying  diagram  to  show  the  very 
common  fault  of  not  carrying  the  up-stroke 
far  enough  over.    A  curved  down-stroke  is  almost  sure  to  result. 

(2.)  The  turn  having  the  same  width  as  the  turn  of  the 
First  Principle. 

THE   THIRD  PRINCIPLE. 

The  left  curve,  Element 
BBsBaffffflffMffi^l^TOm^ffffl  I  IV..  is  here  joined  to  the 
straight  line  by  the  upper  turn,  Element  V.,  as  in  the  Second 
Principle ;  and  the  straight  line  is  then  joined  to  the  right 
curve,  Element  III.,  by  the  lower  turn,  Element  II.,  as  in  the 
First  Principle. 

This  is  the  Third  Principle.  Its  form  is  angular  on  both 
sides,  the  points  changed  to  turns. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  the  Third  Principle  are  Ele- 
ments IV.,  V.,  I.,  II.,  III. 

Illustration.  —  Place  the  accompany- 
ing diagram  on  the  board  to  show  how  the 
Third  Principle  is  formed  from  the  Second 
and  First. 

The  instruction  for  these  two  Principles  is  to  be  used  for 
the  Third. 

Critical  Points.  — (1.)  The  slant  and  straightness  of  the 
down-stroke.  (2.)  Carrying  the  first  up-stroke  well  over  at 
the  top.      (3.)  Not  turning  too  soon  in  the  down-stroke. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  59 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  x  are 
Third  Principle  and  Element  I.  as 
the  cross-line. 

Formation.  —  Write  the  Third  Principle,  and  cross  it  up- 
ward with  a  straight  line  through  the  centre  on  the  slant  of 
the  curves. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Those  of  the  Third  Principle. 
(*2.)  Crossing  the  Third  Principle  through  the  centre. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  n  are 
the  Second  and  Third  Principles. 

Formation. — Join  the  parts  in  a  point  at  the  base-line, 
keeping  the  angle  open.  Make  the  curves  slight,  turns  uni- 
form, and  the  down-strokes  straight,  with  the  same  slant. 

The  width  is  one  space.  This  is  secured  by  simply  making 
the  up-stroke  slant  the  same  as  in  u.  It  is  measured  across 
the  middle. 

Take  care  that  the  letter  is  placed  in  the  box  as  it  is  in  the 
copy,  that  it  begins  and  ends  in  the  corners,  and  that  all  the 
lines  are  fine.  Watch  the  position,  penholding,  and  move- 
ments. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Those  of  Second  and  Third  Prin- 
ciples. (2.)  Straightness  and  uniform  slant  of  the  down- 
strokes.  (3.)  Turns  at  top  and  base  lines  alike  in  width. 
HMRnmngMMgRn^  Analysis.  —  The  parts 
Wkm^mW^B^^^mf^^J--^^'^.  of  m  are  Second,  Second, 
and  Third  Principles. 

Formation. — Join  the  parts  in  points  at  the  base-line. 
The  first  three  curves  are  similar,  the  four  turns  equal  in  width, 
and  the  straight  lines  and  curves  slant  alike  respectively. 
Width  two  spaces,  secured  by  the  slant  of  the  up-strokes. 

Critical  Points.  — Those  of  Second  and  Third  Principles. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  v  are 
Third  Principle  modified,  dot,  and 
a  level  curve. 

The  Third  Principle  is  modified  by  carrying  up  the  last  curve 
closer,  so  as  to  make  the  width  of  v  about  half  a  space. 


60  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

Illustration.  —  Draw  the  Third  Principle 
on  the  board,  add  the  dot  and  connecting-line, 
and  show  that  the  v  thus  made  would  be  too 
wide.  Then  make  the  modified  line,  and  impress  it  on  the 
scholars'  minds. 

Remark.  —  It  is  to  be  remembered,  that,  by  previous  prac- 
tice, they  have  formed  the  habit  of  writing  the  up-strokes  with 
a  oertain  slant.  Fix  on  their  minds  that  a  special  habit  is  to 
be  formed  in  writing  this  up-stroke  for  v  and  w,  that  these  let- 
ters may  be  made  narrower  as  required. 

The  dot  begins  even  with  the  upper  turn,  and  is  formed  by 
retracing  the  curve  for  a  very  short  distance  without  pressing 
on  the  pen. 

The  level  curve  is  carried  from  the  bottom  of  the  dot  to  the 
top  line. 

When  v  is  followed  by  itself  or  another  letter,  the  level 
curve  supersedes  the  first  connecting-line  of  the  letter  follow- 
ing, and  joins  the  main  line  either  in  a  point  or  turn. 

The  distance  between  the  top  point  of  a  v  and  the  turn  of  a 
v  following  is  exactly  the  width  of  the  top  of  the  letter. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  carry  in  g-up  of  the  third  line 
closer.     (2.)  Making  the  dot  small. 

Analysis. — The  parts  of  w  are 
Third    Principle,   First     Principle 
modified,  dot,  and  level  curve. 

Formation.  —  The  First  Principle  is  modified  by  carrying 
up  the  last  curve  about  half  a  space  closer,  as  in  v.  The 
width  of  w  across  the  top  is  about  one  space  and  a  half. 
The  instruction  given  for  v  applies  here. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1 .)  The  modification  of  the  last  up- 
stroke of  iv.  (2.)  Joining  the  principles  in  a  sharp  angle  at 
the  top  line,  and  keeping  the  lines  separate,  except  at  the 
point. 

Remark.  —  Be  careful  to  have  the  letters  placed  in  the 
boxes  exactly  as  they  are  in  the  diagram.  This  will  be  found 
very  helpful  in  getting  the  right  slants  and  widths. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND   LETTERS.  61 

THE    OVAL. 

Two  features  —  the  straight  down-stroke  and  the  increased 
slant  of  the  up-stroke  —  characterize  the  first  three  principles. 
In  the  oval  the  down-stroke  is  curved,  and  the  two  sides  are 
parallel. 

Analysis.  — Tke  parts  of  ©  are 
Elements  IV.,  IV.,  II.,  III.,  V. 

Formation.  —  Carry  the  first  up-stroke  as  far  over  as  the 
beginning  of  the  bend  of  the  turn  in  ?i,  return  a  little  on  this 
line  to  get  the  beginning  of  the  curve,  continue  the  down-stroke 
as  a  curve,  make  a  short  turn,  continue  the  up-stroke  to  the 
:op  line,  and  join  the  down-stroke ;  finish  with  a  level  curve. 


Illustration.  —  Give  this  diagram  on  the  board  to  show 
the  joining  in  a  point,  as  in  u  (Fig.  1)  ;  in  a  turn,  as  in  the 
first  part  of  n  (Fig.  2) ;  and  the  different  habit  now  to  be 
acquired  of  running  back  a  little  on  the  up-stroke  to  get  the 
.curved  down-stroke  (Fig.  3).  Also  to  show  the  angular  form 
of  the  First  Principle  (Fig.  4),  and  the  parallel  sides  of  the 
oval  (Fig.  5). 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Running  back  a  little  on  the  up- 
stroke. (2.)  The  curved  down-stroke.  (3.)  The  parallelism 
of  the  two  sides.     (4.)  Closing  at  the  top. 

When  o  is  joined  to  another  letter,  the  directions  given  for 
the  connecting-line  in  v  apply. 

When  o  is  followed  by  o,  the  distance  between  the  tops  of 
the  o's  is  exactly  one  space.  This  is  a  guide  for  making  the 
level  curve,  used  as  connecting-line,  of  the  right  length. 

THE  FOURTH   PRINCIPLE. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  a  are 
Element     IV.,    Fourth    and    First 
Principles. 


62  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

An  oval  modified  by  having  more  than  the  usual  slant,  the 
top  pointed  and  projecting  on  the  right  side,  is  the  Fourth 
Principle. 

Formation.  —  Continue  the  first  curve  well  over,  touch- 
ing the  top  line  as  far  forward  as  the  second  point  of  a  u ; 
return  half  a  space  on  this  line,  and  make  a  curved  down-stroke 
with  enough  slant  to  carry  it  back  to  the  first  lower  turn  of  u ; 
then  ascend  like  the  inner  line  of  u,  and  finish  like  u  with  the 
First  Principle.      Width,  one  space. 

Illustration.  —  Draw  the  letter  u  on 
the  board.  Change  the  first  up-stroke  to 
the  left  curve,  and  carry  it  over  and  for- 
ward to  the  second  point  of  the  u,  —  that  is,  over  like  the  first 
line  of  ?i,  but  not  touching  the  top  line  so  soon,  and  then  for- 
ward one  space;  next,  return  on  the  same  line  half  a  space, 
and  slant  back  into  the  first  turn  of  the  u;  after  this,  continue 
and  finish  exactly  like  it.  It  adds  to  the  force  of  this  illustra- 
tion if  the  u  is  made  with  white  chalk,  and  the  a  with  red. 
The  down-stroke  of  the  oval  has  more  than  the  usual  slant. 
Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Carrying  the  up-stroke  over,  and 
then  forward  one  space.  (2.)  The  increased  slant  of  the 
down-stroke,  that  the  letter  in  which  it  is  used  may  be  one 
space  wide  on  the  base-line. 

Remark.  —  It  should  be  observed,  that  two  special  habits 
are  here  to  be  formed,  —  (1)  of  carrying  the  first  line  forward, 
and  (2)  of  giving  the  increased  slant  to  the  down-stroke. 
Both  of  the  movements  necessary  to  effect  this  are  peculiar  to 
the  Fourth  Principle. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  c  are 
Elements  IV.,  V.,  IV.,  II.,  III. 
Formation.  —  Begin  like  the  Second 
Principle,  —  left  curve,  turn  and  descend 
straight  and  slanting  one-fourth  a  space; 
stop  short,  retrace  the  turn,  form  the  left  side  and  lower  turn 
•of  an  oval,  and  finish  with  the  right  curve  on  the  usual  up- 
slant  to  the  height  of  the  letter. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,   AND    LETTERS.  63 

Remark.  — Take  care  that  the  down-stroke  of  the  turn  at 
the  top  is  on  the  down-slant ;  that  it  is  not  made  heav}r,  or 
carried  down  too  far.  It  is  also  a  very  common  fault  to  make 
the  back  of  c  too  round.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
down-stroke  is  a  curve.  Illustrate  on  the  board,  contrasting 
the  correct  form  and  the  error. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Narrow  top.  (2.)  Slightly-curved 
down-stroke,  not  turned  too  soon.      (3.)  Narrow  lower  turn. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  e  are 
Elements  III.,  IV.,  II.,  III. 

Formation.  —  Begin  with  a  right  curve  having  more  than 
the  usual  slant;  at  one-third  of  the  height  from  the  base-line 
change  this  to  the  down-slant,  that  the  sides  of  the  loop  may 
be  parallel ;  at  the  top  line  make  a  narrow  turn  to  the  left, 
descend,  and  finish  like  c,  crossing  the  up-stroke  at  one-third 
from  the  base-line. 

If  another  e  follows,  slant  low,  and  then  slant  up  as  before. 
The  low  slant  must  be  carried  far  enough  to  place  the  second 
e  one  space  from  the  first. 

Illustration.  —  Draw  the  letter 
u  on  the  board.  Call  attention  to  the 
uniform  slant  of  the  first  and  of  the 
second  up-strokes.  Make  a  mark  on  each  of  the  down-strokes 
of  u  one-third  of  a  space  from  the  base-line.  Then  draw  the 
first  line  to  this  point,  and  notice  the  increased  slant;  in  other 
words,  how  low  the  line  must  be  that  it  may  be  crossed  one- 
third  from  the  base-line.  Next  carry  the  line  up,  and  join  it 
to  the  top  of  the  u  by  a  narrow  turn.  Notice  that  the  slant 
here  is  less  than  the  usual  up-slant.  Compare  the  forms  of 
the  two  up-strokes,  writing  them  separately  on  the  board,  and 
Asking  the  scholars  which  you  have  made.  Repeat  this  for  the 
second  e.     Use  red  chalk,  if  convenient,  for  filling  in  the  «'s. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Slanting  low,  and  then  lessening 
the  slant  at  one-third  from  the  base-line.  (2.)  Making  the 
down-stroke  with  a  slight  curve,  and  not  turning  too  sooil  (3.) 
End  the  last  up-stroke  at  the  height  of  the  letter. 


64  MANUAL    OF    PENMANSHIP. 

Remark.  —  Observe  the  special  habit  which  must  be  formed 
for  the  execution  of  the  first  up-stroke  as  it  is  found  in  this 
letter  alone. 

Since  e  is  one  of  the  letters  which  most  frequently  occur  in 
the  English  language,  it  is  very  important  that  it  should  be 
well  made  ;  and  }Tet  no  letter  will  give  the  teacher  more 
trouble.  Scholars,  unless  constantly  watched,  make  it  with  a 
round  back,  nearly  upright,  and  ending  on  the  base-line.  Be 
especially  careful,  therefore,  that  the  three  Critical  Points  are 
observed  in  practice. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  r  are 
Element   III.,  dot,    slight   vertical 
curve,  and  Eirst  Principle. 

Formation.  —  Begin  with  the  right  curve,  lessening  its 
slant  very  slightly,  and  rise  one-fourth  of  a  space  above  the 
top  line.  Then  retrace  a  little  without  pressure  to  form  the 
dot,  and  go  directly  down  to  unite  with  the  Eirst  Principle 
just  below  the  top  line.  The  width  of  r  at  half  the  height  is 
half  a  space. 

Place  the  r's  in  the  box  as  shown  in  the  copy. 

Remark.  —  It  will  be  observed,  that,  in  the  Anal}*sis, 
we  say  "slight  curve;'1  and  in  the  formation,  "  go  directly 
down."  The  former  is  the  true  form:  the  latter  is  used  to 
prevent  the  scholars,  whilst  beginners,  from  making  the  head 
project  in  an  awkward  manner  in  front,  as  is  their  too-common 
habit. 

Illustration.  —  Write  u  on  the 
board;  then,  as  in  the  diagram,  carry  up 
the  first  line  with  lessened  slant  one-fourth 
higher,  and  make  the  head,  joining  it  to  the  u  a  little  below 
its  point.  Repeat  for  the  second  r.  Use  red  chalk,  as  before 
suggested. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Small  dot  and  short  vertical  down- 
stroke  of  the  head.  (2.)  Straightness  and  slant  of  the  down- 
stroke.      (3.)   Ending  at  the  usual  height. 

This  letter  will  always  need  special  attention. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  66 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  s  are 
Elements  III.,  III.,  II.,  dot,  and 
III. 

Formation.  —  Make  the  first  up-stroke  as  in  r,  with 
slio-htlv-lessened  slant,  and  to  one-fourth  above  the  top  line. 
Retrace  to  the  top  line,  and  then  form  the  right  side  and  lower 
turn  of  an  oval,  rising  one-fourth  of  a  space  from  the  base-line 
on  the  left  side.  Retrace  downward  to  form  a  dot  on  the  first 
up-stroke,  project  the  last  up-stroke  a  little  before  ascending, 
and  finish  at  the  usual  height. 

Illustration.  —  Make  an  oval  on  the 
board  ;  draw  through  it  with  red  chalk  the 
first  up-stroke,  as  in  the  diagram,  cutting 
the  left  side  of  the  oval  at  one-fourth  from  the  base-line,  and 
rising  to  one-fourth  above  the  top.  Retrace  this,  and  join  to 
the  right  side  of  the  oval.  Bend  the  up-stroke  of  the  turn  on 
the  left  side  down  a  little  to  form  the  dot  on  the  up-stroke  with 
its  slant.  Show  that,  if  the  last  up-stroke  did  not  project  a 
little  at  the  base,  it  would  be  too  close  to  the  s,  as  in  the 
dotted  line. 

The  letter  s  occurs  so  frequently  in  writing,  and  requires 
attention  to  so  many  points,  that  it  will  be  found  worth  while 
to   use   the    accompanying    diagram    for   further   illustration. 


Draw  on  the  board  the  double  lines.  Make  each  of  these 
errors  in  turn,  and  require  those  scholars  who  see  any  thing 
wrong  to  raise  their  hands  ;  then  inquire  what  it  is.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  erroneous  forms  are  not  made  at  random 
or  arranged  promiscuously,  nor  are  all  possible  faults  given, 
but  that  a  selection  is  made  with  a  definite  purpose,  to  enforce 
the  knowledge  of  the  letter  in  its  particulars  by  contrast  with 
error. 

The  answers  will  be  as  follows  :  Not  above  the  line  (Fig.  1) ; 


66  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

turn  not  brought  down  to  the  line,  making  the  base  double 
(Fig.  2)  ;  too  high  (Fig.  3)  ;  not  retraced  at  top  (Fig.  4)  ;  too 
sudden  a  swell  for  the  oval  (Fig.  5)  ;  left  side  of  turn  projecting 
instead  of  going  up,  and  being  bent  back  on  the  first  up-stroke 
(Fig.  6)  ;  not  retraced  at  the  base,  but  looped  (Fig.  7). 

Critical  Points.  — To  go  up  on  the  left  side  of  the  lower 
turn,  and  to  bend  down  the  line  so  that  the  dot  ma}r  be  on 
first  up-stroke. 

THE   STEM-LETTERS. 

The  four  stem-letters,  t,  d, 
p,  and  q,  are  so  named  from 
the  extended  straight  lines 
which  are  found  in  them. 
The  length  and  straight- 
ness  of  these  stems  render 
them  peculiarly  adapted  for 
shading:  hence  they  are  among  the  most  showy  letters  in 
writing. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  t   are 
Element   III.,  the    Right    Curve,   as 
connecting -line,  the  First  Principle 
extended,  and  the  crossing. 

Formation.  —  Begin  at  the  base-line  with  the  right  curve 
and  the  usual  up-slant  to  the  height  of  one  space ;  then  change 
the  slant  to  that  of  the  down-stroke,  and  carry  it  to  one  space 
more  in  height.  At  the  desired  height,  spread  the  points 
of  the  pen  by  pressure  to  the  width  required  for  the  shade 
before  the  downward  movement  is  begun ;  descend  with  a 
slanting  straight  line  on  the  usual  down-slant,  gradually  di- 
minishing the  pressure ;  and  finish  like  the  first  principle,  at 
one  space  in  height.  Cross  it  at  one-third  from  the  top  with  a 
very  tine  horizontal  line  one  space  long,  and  of  even  length  on 
each  side  of  the  stem. 

To  make  the  crossing  level,  it  must  be  executed  by  moving 
the  whole  hand  sideways,  sliding  on  the  finger-rest. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  67 

Illustration.  —  Place  a  u  on  the 
board.  Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
up-strokes  slant  more  than  the  down- 
strokes.  Continue  the  first  up-stroke  to  another  space  in 
height  without  changing  the  slant.  Next  draw  the  upper  part 
of  the  extended  First  Principle,  and  thus  show  the  necessity  of 
changing  the  slant  of  the  up-stroke  at  the  height  of  one  space 
from  the  base-line,  that  it  may  be  retraced  half  its  height  by 
the  down-stroke. 

Show  further,  that,  if  the  slant  is 
not  changed,  one  of  three  faults  must 
result :  either  the  stem  will  form  an 
angle  at  the  top  with  the  up-stroke  (Fig.  1),  or  it  will  have 
too  much  slant  (Fig.  2)  or  a  very  broad  turn  (Fig.  3). 

Remark.  —  Wherever  there  is  any  thing  peculiar  in  a 
form,  there  must  be  a  corresponding  change  in  the  habitual 
movement  to  execute  it.  Hence  especial  care  is  needed  to  see 
that  the  new  habit  of  movement  is  acquired.  Remind  the 
scholars  of  the  force  of  the  old  habit  already  formed,  and  that 
it  is  only  by  intelligent  watchfulness  that  the  change  can  be 
made. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Changing  the  slant  of  the  up- 
stroke from  the  height  of  one  space  upwards.  (2.)  Making 
the  turn  the  same  width  as  the  lower  turn  in  other  letters. 
(3.)  Crossing  level  by  moving  the  whole  hand.  (4.)  Dimin- 
ishing shade.      (5.)   Height. 

"Whenever  in  any  small  letter  the  up-stroke  is  carried  above 
one  space  in  height,  the  slant  must  be  changed. 
BBnBBnn        Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  d  are 
^i^^^^^^^^^^i    Element  IV.,  Fourth  Principle,  and 
WsSOSBESeGA    First  extended. 

Formation.  —  Begin  like  a.  Change  the  slant  of  the  up- 
stroke of  the  Fourth  Principle  as  in  the  up-stroke  of  t,  and 
finish  as  t  without  the  crossing. 

The  Fourth  Principle  in  d  is  not  shaded. 

Critical  Points. — Those  of  the  Fourth  Principle  and  of  t 


68 


MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  p  are 
Elements  III.,  I.,  and  Third  Prin- 
ciple. 

Formation.  —  The  up-stroke, 
according  to  the  rule  given  under 
t,  since  it  is  carried  above  one  space, 
slants  less  than  usual.  This  change  is  to  be  made  from  the 
base-line,  and  not  at  the  height  of  one  space,  as  in  t,  in  order 
that  the  angle  may  be  kept  open  to  the  top  point,  instead  of 
having  the  up-stroke  retraced.  Ascend  two  spaces  from  the 
base-line,  stop,  and  descend  straight  and  slanting  to  one  space 
and  a  half  below  the  base-line,  beginning  to  shade  at  the 
centre,  and  increasing  the  shade  to  its  termination.  When 
the  stem  is  made,  stop  the  movement,  then  release  the  pressure 
to  make  the  end  of  the  shade  square,  raise  the  pen,  begin 
again  where  the  stem  crosses  the  base-line,  and  add  the  Third 
Principle. 

Illustration.  — 
Draw  the  scale  on  the 
board.  Write  the  up- 
stroke as  in  Fig.  1, 
with  the  usual  up- 
slant,  to  the  height  of 
two  spaces ;  then  the  down-stroke  with  its  proper  slant ;  call 
.attention  to  the  too  great  width  at  the  base-line.  It  would  be 
well  to  write  the  syllable  ap  with  the  last  up-stroke  of  a  carried 
tip  as  described,  and  notice  that  the  j>  is,  in  consequence,  too 
far  off  from  a.  Returning  to  the  scale,  without  raising  the 
pen  from  the  bottom  of  the  stem,  write  the  up-stroke  with  its 
uisual  slant,  and  finish  the  Third  Principle  (see  Fig.  1).  Notice 
the  double  stem  thus  formed,  and  the  distance  between  the 
stem  and  the  Third  Principle.  Prom  this  show  the  advantage 
of  raising  the  pen  at  the  termination  of  the  stem,  and  begin- 
ning again  at  the  base-line. 

Draw  the  up-stroke  as  before  (see  Fig.  2),  and  then  bring 
down  the  stem  at  the  correct  distance  from  it  on  the  base-line, 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  69 

and  observe  that  the  stem  has  now  too  much  slant.  This  is  a 
very  common  fault,  and  arises  from  not  changing  the  slant  of 
the  up-stroke. 

Draw  the  up-stroke  as  in  t  (see  Fig.  3),  changing  the  slant 
at  the  height  of  one  space.  If  the  stem  is  now  written  on  the 
eorrect  slant,  the  up-stroke  will  be  retraced  through  one  space, 
as  in  t.  By  adding  the  up-stroke  with  the  slant  lessened  from 
the  base-line,  show  how  all  these  errors  are  avoided. 

Remark.  —  Remember  the  remark  under  t  as  to  the  force 
of  habit.  The  movement  for  the  up-stroke  of  f>  is  peculiar  to 
this  letter,  and  used  in  no  other.  There  must,  therefore,  be  a 
special  act  of  the  mind  whenever  p  is  written,  —  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  word,  to  change  the  slant  of  the  up-stroke  ;  when  fol- 
lowing a  letter,  to  change  the  slant  of  the  last  up-stroke  of  the 
letter.  This  act  of  the  mind  must  be  repeated  till  the  habit  is 
formed,  and  the  mental  act  becomes  no  longer  a  conscious  one. 

Critical   Points.  —  (1.)    Lessening  the   slant  of  the  up 
stroke  from  the  base-line.      (2.)  Increasing  shade  of  stem  from 
its  centre.      (3.)    Raising  the  pen  at  the  termination  of  the 
stem,  and  beginning  again  on  the  base-line. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  q  are 
Element  IV.,  Fourth  Principle,  and 
Elements  I..  II.,  IV. 

Formation.  —  Begin  as  in  a,  con- 
tinue the  straight  line  of  the  stem 
downwards  one  space  and  a  half  below  the  base-line,  make  a 
narrow  turn,  ascend  with  the  left  curve  nearly  parallel  to  the 
stem  as  far  as  the  base-line,  thence  branch  off  with  the  usual 
slant. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Those  for  the  Fourth  Principle. 
(2.)  Carrying  up  the  lower  part  of  the  last  up-stroke  parallel 
to  the  stem. 

Remark.  —  The  common  fault,  arising  from  the  force  of 
habit,  is  to  slant  this  up-stroke  too  much  from  the  turn  upwards. 
It  will  also  require  much  care  to  join  this  letter  in  a  point  to 
the  letter  u,  by  which  it  is  always  followed. 


70  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


THE   FIFTH  PRINCIPLE. 

The  upper  looped  stem  is  the  Fifth  Princi- 
ple. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  the  Fifth  Princi- 
ple are  Elements  III.,  V.,  and  IV.,  ending  in  I. 
Formation.  —  Begin  with  the  right  curve, 
as  in  i,  thence  lessening  the  slant  according  to  the  rule  under  t ; 
carry  it  to  two  spaces  above  the  top  line  ;  make  a  narrow  turn 
to  the  left ;  descend  with  a  very  slight  left  curve,  so  as  to  cross 
the  up-stroke  exactly  on  the  top  line ;  finish  with  the  slanting 
straight  line. 

The  object  of  changing  the  slant  in  the  up-stroke  is  to  make 
the  loop  on  the  down-slant;  in  other  words,  to  prevent  it  from 
falling  over  in  the  ungraceful  way  in  which  it  is  generally 
written. 

Illustration.   —  Draw 
tha  scale  on  the  board.    Write 


an  i  without  the  dot.  Con- 
tinue the  first  two  lines  two 
spaces  above  the  top  line,  with 
the  proper  slant  of  each,  as  in  Fig.  1.  Notice  the  divergence 
of  these  lines,  and  show  that  it  is  necessary  to  modify  one  line 
or  the  other  to  make  the  loop. 

Repeat  the  same  form,  and  make  the  loop  on  the  up-stroke, 
as  in  Fig.  2.  Notice  that  now  the  loop  has  too  much  slant. 
It  would  offend  the  eye  accustomed  to  the  regular  slant  of  the 
own-strokes. 
Repeat  again,  and  lessen  the  slant  of  the  up-stroke  so  as  to 
make  the  loop  on  the  down-stroke  (Fig.  3)  ;  after  the  upper 
turn,  make  a  very  slight  curve  on  the  left  side  of  the  straight 
line.  Observe  that  the  loop  is  half  a  space  in  width,  and  that 
two-thirds  of  this  width  are  on  the  right  side  of  the  straight 
line,  and  one-third  on  the  left.  Point  out  the  object  of  this 
slight  curve  on  the  left, — to  make  the  loop  more  graceful. 
Finally,  notice  the  change  from  the  curve  to  the  straight  line. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS. 


71 


Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Lessening  the  slant  of  the  up- 
stroke from  one  space  in  height  upwards.  (2.)  Crossing  ex- 
actly one-third  the  height  of  the  letter.  (3.)  Ending  with  a 
slanting  straight  line.      (4.)   Making  it  three  spaces  in  height. 


THE  UPPER  LOOPED-STEM  LETTERS. 

Five  letters  have  the  upper  looped-stem,  —  h,  k,  I,  b,  f. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  h  are 
the  Fifth  and  Third  Principles,  joined 
in  a  point  at  the  base-line. 

Critical  Points.  —  Those  for  the 
Fifth  and  Third  Principles. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  h  are 
the  Fifth  and  First  Principles  united 
by  Element  IV.  and  a  loop. 

Formation.  —  Make  the  Fifth 
Principle  as  before  directed ;  carry  up  the  left  curve  closer  to 
the  stem  than  in  h,  and  one-fourth  of  a  space  higher  than  the 
top  line  ;  turn  ;  form  a  small  loop  on  the  slant  of  the  up-stroke, 
and  finish  with  the  First  Principle  slightly  bent  to  the  left  at 
the  top.  The  width  of  the  lower  part  of  k,  the  last  part  of  w} 
and  o,  v,  b,  r,  s,  is  each  one  half  a  space. 

Illustration.  — Write  h  in  the  scale  on  the 
board.  Then  make  the  left  curve  closer  to  the 
stem  than  that  of  the  Third  Principle ;  carry 
it  one-fourth  above,  and  well  out  to  the  right ; 
make  the  loop,  and  finish  it  on  the  top  of  the  First  Principle. 
The  last  down-stroke  should,  however,  be  a  third  closer  to  the 
stem :  it  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  letter. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Carrying  up  the  second  up-stroke 
closer  to  the  stem  than  in  h.  (2.)  Making  the  loop  one-fourth 
higher,  throwing  it  well  over,  and  coming  well  under  with 
it.  (3.)  Making  the  last  down-stroke  slant  the  same  as  the 
stem,  and  a  third  closer  than  in  h. 


72 


MANUAL    OF    PENMANSHIP. 


Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  I  are  the 
Fifth  Principle  finished  with  Ele- 
ments II.  and  III. 

Formation.  —  Make  the  Fifth 
Principle  ;  turn,  and  finish  like  the  First. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  same  as  the  Fifth  Principle, 
especially  the  straightness  and  slant  of  the  lower  part.  (2.) 
Making  the  turn  the  same  width  as  in  the  short  letters. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  b  are  the 
Fifth  Principle,  Elements  II.,  III., 
dot,  and  level  curve. 

Formation.  —  Make  the  Fifth 
Principle  as  before ;  turn,  and  finish  like  v.  The  width  of  b 
is  about  half  a  space. 

Critical  Points.  —  Those  of  the  Fifth  Principle  and  of  v. 

Analysis .  —  The 
parts  of  /  are  the  Fifth 
Principle  and  a  loop, 
formed  by  continuing 
the  Fifth  Principle  two 
spaces  below  the  base- 
line, folding  it  up  in 
front,  drawing  it  in  to  the  base-line,  and  finishing  it  with 
Element  III.  (Fig.  3.) 

Formation.  —  Make  the  Fifth  Principle ;  continue  the 
straight  line  with  a  veiy  slight  left  curve,  having  a  swelling 
shade  to  two  spaces  below  the  base-line;  make  a  narrow  turn 
to  the  right,  ascend  with  the  right  curve,  and  draw  it  in  to  the 
stem  at  the  base-line;  finish  with  the  right  curve.  The  width 
of  the  upper  and  lower  loops  is  the  same. 

Illustration. — Place  the  scale  on  the  board.  Draw  a 
slanting  straight  line  (Fig.  1);  draw  the  Fifth  Principle,  and 
continue  the  straight  line  (Fig.  2)  ;  then  show  the  perfect  let- 
ter (Fig.  3).  Contrast  the  error  of  a  curved  form  with  the 
slanting  straight  line  (Figs.  4  and  5).  This  is  a  difficult 
h'tter.  a^a  require  «!c3e  attention. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  73 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  change  of  slant  in  the  first 
up-stroke  is  especially  important.  (2.)  The  general  straight- 
ness  of  the  letter. 

THE    SIXTH   PRINCIPLE. 

The  lower  looped  stem  is  the  Sixth  Princi- 
ple. 

Analysis.  — The  parts  of  the  Sixth  Principle 
are  Element  I.,  continued  with  Elements  III., 
II.,  IV. 
Formation.  — Begin  with  the  slanting  straight  line  to  the 
base-line,  continue  on  the  same  slant  with  a  very  slight  right 
curve  two  spaces  below,  make  a  narrow  turn  to  the  left,  ascend 
with  the  left  curve,  cross  the  down-stroke  at  the  base-line,  and 
finish  with  the  same  curve  and  the  usual  up-slant. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  Principle  is  the  Fifth  inverted 
and  reversed. 

Illustration.  —  It  will 
be  well  to  place  on  the 
board  the  four  errors  shown 
in  the  diagram.  They  are 
those  most  frequently  made.  (1.)  Running  the  down-stroke 
off  to  the  left.  (2.)  Making  a  projection  to  the  left  at  the 
turn.  The  narrow  turn  must  be  made  by  reversing  the  move- 
ment of  the  pen,  with  only  sufficient  movement  to  the  left  at 
the  bottom  of  the  turn  to  avoid  a  point.  (3.)  In  changing 
from  the  straight  line  to  the  curve,  a  shoulder  is  made  by  curv- 
ing too  much.  (4.)  The  curve  of  the  lower  part  of  the  down- 
stroke,  that  it  is  not  begun  at  the  base-line. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Keeping  the  same  slant  throughout. 
(2.)  flaking  a  narrow  turn.  (3.)  Crossing  exactly  at  one-third 
from  the  top  of  the  letter.     (4.)  Length. 

The  size  of  the  looped  letters  renders  them  a  prominent 
feature  in  writing :  great  pains  should  therefore  be  taken  to 
execute  them  accurately. 


74 


MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


THE   LOWER   LOOPED-STEM  LETTERS. 

Four  letters  have  the  lower  looped-stem,  — j,  y,  g,  z. 

Analysis. . —  The  parts  of  J  are 
Element  III.,  Sixth  Principle,  and 
dot,  as  in  *. 

Formation.  —  Begin     with     the 
ght   curve  as   connecting-line,   and    add   the    Sixth   Princi- 
m\     Place   a  dot  one  space   above    it,  on   the    slant   of  the 
straight  line. 

Critical  Points.  —  Those  of  the  Sixth  Principle. 

I5*H^|ggK%  Analysis. — The  parts  of   ?/   are 

the  Third  and  Sixth  Principles. 
Formation. — Unite  them  at  the 
Wm  top  in  a  point. 

Critical  Points.  —  Those  of  the  Third  and  Sixth  Prin- 
ciples. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  g  are 
Element  IV.,  and  the  Fourth  and 
Sixth  Principles. 

Critical   Points.  —  Those    of    a 
and  the  Sixth  Principle. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  z  are 

the    Second   Principle    and  a    short 

turn  uniting  it   to  the   loop  of  the 

Sixth  Principle. 

Formation.  — Begin  like  the  first  part  of  n;  and,  when  the 

base-line  is  reached,  form  a  short  upper  turn,  and  descend  and 

finish  with  the  loop  of  the  Sixth  Principle. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Making  the  down-stroke  of  the 
Second  Principle  straight  and  slanting.  (2.)  Being  sure  to  let 
it  rest  on  the  base-line. 

This  closes  the  analysis  and  explanation  of  the  principles 
and  letters  of  the  small  alphabet.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
the  scholars  do  not  neglect  the  small  letters  when  they  begin 
the  capitals.     They  must  be  constantly  criticised. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  75 


THE    SEVENTH   PRINCIPLE,    OR    CAPITAL   STEM. 

Analysis.  —  Left     curve,     right 
curve,  and  left  curve. 

This  principle  is  subject  to  several 
modifications.    They  will  be  explained 
under  the  letters  in  which  they  occur. 

Remark.  —  It  is  very  important  to  start  right  on  this 
Principle;  for  it  occurs  in  fifteen  letters, — A,  N,  31,  T,  F,  H, 
K.  Sy  L,  I,  P.  II  R,  G,  D. 

Formation.  —  Begin  at  three  spaces  in  height,  and  from 
the  top  descend  with  a  left  curve  to  half  the  height  of  the  stem ; 
then,  without  stopping,  change  into  a  right  curve,  continue  to 
the  base-line,  and  make  a  broad  turn  upwards  with  the  left 
curve ;  carry  it  well  over  to  form  a  slanting  oval,  rising  to  half 
the  height  of  the  letter.  The  width  of  the  oval  is  about  half  its 
length,  and  the  upper  curve  ends  near  the  stem. 

The  curves  on  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the  oval  are 
similar  and  reversed.  The  slant  of  the  oval,  shown  by  the 
long  diameter,  is  a  little  below  the  middle  of  the  letter. 

The  shade  is  made  on  the  lower  part  of  the  stem,  and 
increases  and  diminishes  gradually,  the  widest  part  being  in 
the  middle  of  the  curve. 

Movement.  —  Do  not  grasp  the  pen.  Let  the  hand  move 
freely  and  lightly.  The  fore-arm  movement  of  the  whole  hand 
and  finger-rest  should  accompany  the  finger-movement.  The 
movement  should  be  uniform  throughout.  Beware  of  stopping 
when  the  base-line  is  reached  ;  also  of  throwing  the  last  curve 
over  with  a  jerk,  consequently  flattening  the  upper  curve  of 
the  oval. 

Illustration.  —  On  the  board 
draw  four  horizontal  lines,  as  in  the 
diagram.  In  these  draw  with  a  fine 
mark  two  ovals  touching  one  another 
in  the  middle.  Their  widths  should  equal  half  their  lengths. 
Mark  the  point  where  the  second  oval  touches   the  top  line. 


76  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

Start  from  this  point  with  red  chalk  if  convenient,  and 
strengthen  the  line  to  the  middle,  forming  the  left  curve. 
Pass  now  to  the  lower  curve  of  the  first  oval,  make  the  swell- 
ing shade,  run  out  a  little  beyond  the  left  side  of  the  first  oval, 
and  finish  with  the  right  curve  carried  over  half  the  height, 
and  ending  near  the  stem. 

This  will  he  found  very  useful  in  showing  the  scholars  that 
they  can  get  the  upper  curve  of  the  stem  by  beginning  like  an 
0 ;  also  in  showing  the  precise  nature  of  the  change  of  the 
curve  at  the  middle.  Again,  in  illustrating  the  obliqueness  of 
the  final  oval,  and  the  way  which  the  curve  must  be  carried 
forward  after  the  base-line  is  touched.  It  also  affords  a  beauti- 
ful illustration  of  the  precise  slant  of  the  capital  stem  in  its 
normal  form. 

Exercise. —  The  scholars  should  now  be  drilled  on  Move- 
ment Exercise  No.  33. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of 
capital  A  are  Seventh  Princi- 
ple, Element  IV.  very  slightly 
curved,  and  a  crossing  curve. 
Formation.  —  The  capital  stem  is  here  modified  by  mak- 
ing the  upper  curve  very  slight,  in  order  to  give  an  agreeable 
form  when  the  second  down-stroke  is  added.  It  must  also 
have  more  slant  than  the  down-strokes  generally  do,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  above  diagram. 

For  the  second  part,  begin  again  at  the  top,  and  make  a  left 
curve,  very  slight  indeed,  and  nicely  adapted  to  the  stem.  It 
slants  a  very  little  less  than  the  usual  down-slant.  To  finish, 
begin  close  to  the  right  side,  make  a  short  left  curve  down- 
wards, cross  half  a  space  from  the  base-line  with  a  level  curve, 
and  carry  it  to  the  top  line.  Observe  the  width  of  the  letter 
carefully. 

Illustration.  —  Draw  two  straight  lines, 
in  a  scale  of  three  spaces,  from  the  top  down- 
wards, on  the  slant  respectively  of  the  two 
sides  of  A.     Then  write  the  capital  stem  on 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS. 


77 


the  first  line,  and  show  the  very  slight  upper  curve,  and  how 
the  lower  curve  runs  off  from  the  straight  line  to  give  the 
proper  slant  to  the  oval. 

Next  observe  how  ungraceful  the  straight  line  on  the  right 
side  is,  and  write  the  proper  curve,  noticing  how  very  slight  it 
is. 

Remark.  —  It  interests  the  scholars  very  much  to  draw  a. 
Roman  A  on  the  board,  and  then  show  what  changes  are  made 
to  adapt  it  to  the  requirements  of  writing.  The  same  method 
may  be  followed  with  all  the  other  capitals. 

Critical  Points. — (1.)  Slight  upper  curve,  and  full  slant 
of  the  stem.  (2.)  The  oval  finish  of  the  stem,  similar  on  both 
sides,  half  the  height  of  the  letter.  (3.)  The  width  of  the 
letter. 

Analysis.  —  The  first  two- 
parts  of  the  capital  JV  are  the 
same  as  in  A.     The  last  part 
is  Element  IV.,  ended  at  two- 
thirds  the  height  of  the  letter. 

Formation.  —  Make  the  first  two  parts  as  in  A,  with  the 
lower  part  of  the  second  down-stroke  curved  a  very  little  more 
than  before.  When  the  base-line  is  reached,  move  the  pen  for- 
ward very  slightly  to  take  off"  the  sharp  point,  and  then  carry 
up  the  left  curve  the  same  distance  from  the  second  down- 
stroke  as  that  is  from  the  first  at  half  the  height,  and  end  at 
two-thirds  the  height  of  the  letter  with  increased  curvature. 
Across  the  middle,  then,  we  have  two  equal  distances. 
Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  same  as  in  A.  (2.)  The  dis- 
tance of  the  last  line,  its  height,  and  increased  curvature  at  the 
top.      (3.)   Connection  of  the  curves  at  the  base-line. 

Analysis.  —  The 
parts  of  M  are  the 
Seventh  Principle,  and 
E  lenient  IV.  three 
times  repeated,  the  last  finished  with  Element  II.  and  a  wave- 
line  one  space  in  height. 


78  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

Formation.  —  Make  the  first  three  lines  as  iVJ  extending 
the  third  to  the  same  height  as  the  first,  and  making  them  a 
little  closer  together  ;  then  the  left  curve,  very  slight,  as  in  the 
second  down-stroke,  at  the  same  distance  as  before,  ending 
with  a  turn  and  a  wave-line  to  the  height  of  one  space.  Ob- 
serve the  distances  across  the  middle  of  the  letter. 

Remark.  —  The  capitals  K,  X,  31,  Q,  H,  U,  when  written 
singly,  without  being  joined  to  the  following  letter,  may  be 
handsomely  finished  with  a  simple  turn  and  a  wave-line.  If 
joined,  the  last  line  is  modified  as  required.  The  letters  J, 
Y,  Z,  are  also  finished  with  a  wave-line. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Those  of  A  and  N.  (2.)  Carrying 
the  third  line  a  little  over  at  the  top.  (3.)  Narrow  turn  at 
the  bottom  of  the  fourth  line.  (4.)  Three  nearly  even  dis- 
tances across  the  middle. 

Analysis.  —  The 
parts    of     T    are    the 
Seventh  Principle,  and 
the   top,    formed    by  a 
small  inverted  oval  and  a  horizontal  double  curve. 

Remark.  —  The  capital  stem  in  T  and  F  differs  from  that 
in  A,  N,  M  in  four  particulars.  (1.)  It  is  shorter.  (2.)  It  is 
more  curved.  (3.)  It  has  a  little  less  slant.  (4.)  The  oval 
finish  is  a  little  shorter. 

Formation. — Begin  at  the  height  of  two  and  a  half 
spaces,  and  make  the  capital  stem  with  its  curvature  a  little 
increased,  and  the  oval  a  little  shorter.  Observe  that  the  first 
curve  forming  the  front  of  the  top  is  one  space  from  the  stem. 
Therefore,  allowing  for  this  distance,  begin  one  space  and  a 
third  from  the  full  height  of  the  letter,  and  continue  the  left 
curve  to  the  top,  turn  and  descend  with  the  right  curve  one 
space  and  a  third,  turn  and  make  the  left  curve  one-third  of  a 
space  inside  the  first,  cross  a  little  below  the  top,  and  make  a 
horizontal  double  curve  about  two  spaces  long. 

Movement.  —  To  make  the  top  handsome,  it  is  necessary, 
after  making  the  oval  with  the  finger-movement,  to  move  the 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS. 


79 


whole  hariJ  to  the  right  with  a  wave  motion,  sliding  on  the 
finger-rest.  Let  the  scholars  practise  on  this  movement  on 
their  spare  yaper. 

Crixical  Points.  —  (1.)  Make  the  stem  half  a  space 
shorter  than  die  full  height.  (2.)  Make  the  front  of  the  top 
on  the  slant  oi  the  writing,  and  close  to  the  stem.  (3.)  Do 
not  let  the  top  rest  on  or  cross  the  stem.  (4.)  Fore-arm 
movement  for  vhe  top. 

Analysis.  —  The 
parts  of  .F  are  the 
capital  stem  crossed 
through  the  centre,  and 
this  line  crossed  by  a  short  straight  line  on  the  right  side  of 
the  stem ;  and  the  top. 

Formation.  —  Ma  ve  the  stem  as  in  T ;  carry  the  upper 
line  of  the  finishing  oval  across  the  stem,  and  cross  it  on  the 
right  side  with  a  short  slanting  straight  line.  Make  the  top  as 
in  T. 

Critical  Points.  —  The  same  as  for  T. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts 
of  H  are  Element  III., 
Seventh  Principle  modified, 
Element  IV.  and  a  crossing- 
curve. 

Remark.  — u  The  capital  stem  is  modified  by  being  made 
half  a  space  shorter,  and  making  the  upper  part  almost 
straight  instead  of  curving  it. 

Formation.  —  For  the  first  part,  begin  on  the  base-line 
and  make  the  right  curve  two  spaces  and  a  half  high,  descend 
nearly  straight  and  slanting,  run  under  with  the  right  curve, 
and  finish  as  in  the  capital  stem.  For  the  second  part, 
begin  at  the  full  height,  and  descend  with  a  full  left  curve, 
straightening  it  gradually  to  the  base-line.  The  width  of  II 
at  the  height  of  one  space  is  three-quarters  of  a  space.  Make 
the  crossing-curve  as  in  A. 

Critical    Points.  ^~  (1.;    Making   the    stem   half  a  space 


/:..:.„.  .y.vr.:.. 


80  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

shorter,  and  the  upper  parts  straight.  (2.)  The  width  of  the 
letter.  (3.)  Gradual  straightening  of  the  last  curve  from  the 
top. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts 
of  K  are  Element  III.,  Sev- 
enth Principle  modified  as 
in  H,  and  Element  IV. 
joined  to  the  First  Principle  by  a  small  loop  at  the  cent-re  of 
rhe  letter. 

Formation.  —  Make  the  first  part  as  in  H.  For  the  sec- 
ond part,  begin  at  the  full  height,  make  the  left  curve,  turn 
under  and  back  at  half  the  height,  and  cross  the  stem  ;  make  a 
narrow  loop  pointing  upwards  to  the  left,  and  finish  with  the 
First  Principle,  giving  it  a  little  less  slant  and  broader  turn 
than  usual,  and  changing  the  up-stroke  to  a  wave-line  one 
space  high. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  stem  as  in  H.  (2.)  The 
double  curve  of  the  second  part  above  the  loop.  (3.)  The  loop 
at  half  the  height,  pointing  upwards  at  the  left. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of 
S  are  Element  III.  and  the 
Seventh  Principle  modified. 
Remark.  —  The  Seventh 
Principle  is  modified  by  increasing  the  curvature  of  the  upper 
half. 

Formation.  — Begin  at  the  base-line  with  the  right  curve, 
having  increased  slant  to  half  the  height  of  the  letter;  thence 
lessen  the  slant  to  the  full  height  to  make  the  loop  on  the  slant 
of  the  writing;  make  a  narrow  turn,  descend  with  the  left 
curve  to  half  the  height,  cross,  and  change  at  the  crossing  to 
the  right  curve,  run  under,  and  finish  as  capital  stem,  with  the 
oval  a  little  shorter.     Begin  the  shade  below  the  crossing. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Bold  sweep  of  the  up-stroke,  and 
change  of  slant  for  the  loop.  (2.)  Crossing  at  the  middle  to 
make  the  loop  half  the  length  of  the  letter.  (3.)  Change 
from  left  to  right  curve  at  the  crossing. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND   LETTERS. 


81 


Remark. — This  letter  is  one  of  those,  which,  from  the 
simplicity  of  their  construction,  depend  upon  the  accuracy  of 
their  execution  for  their  beauty.  Especial  attention  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  eacli  particular  of  the  Critical  Points. 

Analysis.  — The  parts  of  L 
are  Element  III.  and  the  Sev- 
enth  Principle,   finished   with 
a  horizontal  loop   and   double 
;irve  instead  of  an  oval. 
Formation.  —  Form  and  shade  like  S  from  its  beginning 
to  the  base-line  ;  then  make  a  horizontal  loop  and  double  curve 
rising  with  a  wave-line  to  one  space  in  height. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  same  as  for  S.  (2.)  Making 
the  loop  horizontal,  and  being  careful  that  the  double  curve 
touches  the  base-line  on  the  right  side  of  the  stem. 

Analysis. — The  parts  of 
I  are   Element  IV.,  and   the 
Seventh  Principle  modified. 
Remark. — The     Seventh 
Principle  in  this  letter  is  a  single  curve. 

Formation.  —  Observe  the  style  of  the  introductory  line, 
a  long,  full  curve,  rising  with  a  graceful  sweep  clear  to  top. 
It  has  full  curvature  below  the  height  of  one  space,  which 
brings  the  curve  in  this  part  almost  at  right  angles  to  the 
main  slant.  Begin  at  the  base-line  with  the  left  curve,  and 
carry  it  well  to  left  at  the  start,  letting  it  rise  on  main  slant 
to  the  full  height  of  the  letter ;  here  combine  the  first  curve 
in  a  short  oval  turn  with  the  main  right  curve;  bring  this 
curve  on  the  main  slant  to  base,  and  finish  it  with  a  full  base- 
oval.  Let  the  shade  fall  on  the  lower  part  of  the  stem,  where 
the  curvature  increases  to  form  the  oval.  Make  the  width  of 
the  loop,  or  upper  oval,  one  space. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Giving  full  curvature  to  first  curve 
at  the  start.  (2.)  Having  the  stem  cross  first  curve  at  the 
height  of  one-third  of  a  space  above  the  base-line.  (3.)  The 
main  slant  of  the  capital  stem. 

6 


82 


MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


Analysis.  —  The  parts  of 
J  are  Element  IV.,  and  a  main 
right  curve  terminating  in  the 
Sixth  Principle. 

Formation.  —  Begin  a  lit- 
tle below  the  base-line  with 
the  left  curve,  and  carry  it 
well  to  left  at  the  start,  letting  it  rise  on  the  main  slant  to  the 
full  height  of  the  letter;  here  combine  the  first  curve  in  a 
short  oval  turn  with  the  main  right  curve;  let  this  curve  de- 
scend on  the  main  slant,  and  unite  with  the  Sixth  Principle. 
Shade  the  lower  part  of  stem  below  the  base-line.  Make  the 
width  of  the  upper  loop,  or  oval,  one  space. 

Critical  Points. —  (1.)  Giving  full  curvature  to  first  curve 
at  the  start.  (2.)  Having  the  curves  intersect  in  a  point  at 
the  base-line.      (3.)   Main  slant  of  stem. 

Remark.  —  It  is  a  very  common  error  to  give  too  much 
curvature  to  the  stem. 

The  graceful  character  of  both  /  and  J  depends  upon  the 
right  slant  and  easy  flow  of  the  long  curves.  If  the  latter  are 
too  full,  the  letter  will  have  too  great  width,  and  be  inelegant; 
if  the  curvature  of  the  introductory  line  be  not  increased  at 
the  start,  the  letter  will  be  thrown  out  of  balance.  Impress 
the  form  on  the  mind  of  the  pupil  by  blackboard  illustration. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of 
P  are  the  capital  stem  and  the 
left  and  right  curves. 

Formation.  —  Begin  halt 
a  space  below  the  full  height,  make  the  capital  stem  with  a 
little  more  slant  than  the  writing;  when  the  base-line  is 
reached,  make  a  broad  oval  turn  to  the  left,  and  form  the  left 
side  and  top  of  an  oval ;  finish  at  half  the  height  with  a  small 
line  carried  in  through  and  back  to  the  stem,  forming  a  small 
dot.  The  width  in  front  of  the  stern  is  one  space  and  a  third ; 
of  the  lobe  on  the  right,  half  a  space.  Make  the  shade  on  the 
lower  half  of  the  capital  stem. 


ELEMENTS.    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  83 

Illustration.  —  Make  an  inverted  oval 
on  the  board  whose  width  is  half  its  length. 
Put  in  the  capital  stem  and  the  finishing 
lobe. 

Exercise.  -  -  Drill  the  scholars  on  Movement  Exercise 
No.  31  before  writing  P,  B,  and  R. 

Remark.  —  In  writing  P,  B,  and  It,  scholars  are  very  apt 
to  run  to  the  left  on  the  base-line,  from  the  habit  acquired  in 
forming  the  finishing  oval  of  the  capital  stem,  and  thus  make  an 
awkward  projection  which  leads  to  two  other  bad  errors,  —  the 
flattening  of  the  oval  at  the  upper  left,  and  then  making  a  peak 
on  the  right  side  of  the  stem  before  descending  for  the  lobe. 

A  moment's  reflection  will  show  that  the 
last  two  faults  are  almost  unavoidable  if  the 
first  is  made ;  for  if,  from  the  projection  to 
the  left,  a  curve  were  carried  up  on  the  proper 
slant,  the  width  of  the  front  would  be  enormous.  The  only 
resource,  therefore,  is  to  flatten  the  oval ;  but,  when  this  is  done, 
they  cannot  descend  till  the  peak  is  made  beyond  the  stem. 
This  is  so  important,  that  we  give  an  illustration. 

The  simple  means  for  avoiding  these  errors  is  to  move 
upwards  immediately  after  touching  the  base-line.  Of  course, 
a  curve  can  touch  a  straight  line  only  in  one  point. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Turning  upwards  as  soon  as  the 
base-line  is  reached.  (2.)  The  width  of  the  front  and  lobe. 
(3.)  Finishing  the  lobe  at  the  middle. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  B  are 
the  capital  stem,  left  curve,  right 
curve,  narrow  loop,  right  and  left 
curves. 

Formation.  -  -  Begin  and  form  like  P;  and,  instead  of  the 
finish,  make  a  narrow  loop  extending  across  the  stem,  and 
pointing  upwards ;  descend  with  the  right  curve  far  enougli 
below  the  base-line  to  allow  the  left  curve  to  be  carried  up  one 
space  from  the  stem  at  its  farthest  distance,  and  let  it  end 
near  the  narrow  loop. 


84  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  same  as  for  P.  (2.)  The  nar- 
row loop  pointing  upwards  on  the  left.  (3.)  The  slant  of  the 
right  curve  in  the  lower  lobe.  (4.)  Going  below  the  base- 
line. (5.)  Left  curve  one  space  from  the  left  side  of  the 
stem. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  H  are 
the  same  as  those  of  B,  excejDt  that, 
after  the  loop,  it  is  finished  with  the 
First  Principle  bent  a  little  to  the 
left  at  the  top. 

Formation. — Make  R  like  B  till  the  narrow  loop  is 
made  ;  then,  with  a  very  slight  curve,  run  into  the  First  Prin- 
ciple, which  finishes  with  a  wave-line  rising  one  space  in 
height. 

Remark.  —  The  upper  part  of  the  stem  slants  more,  and 
the  upper  lobe  is  a  little  wider,  than  in  B.  The  down-stroke 
of  the  First  Principle  has  a  little  less  slant  than  usual.  The 
turn  is  a  little  broader,  and  it  ends  with  a  wave-line. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  same  as  for  B.  (2.)  More 
slant  given  to  the  upper  part  of  stem  than  in  B.  (3.)  A  little 
more  width  to  the  upper  lobe.  (4.)  A  little  less  slant  to  the 
down-stroke  of  the  First  Principle. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of 
G  are  the  loop  of  Fifth  Prin- 
ciple, and    Seventh    Principle 
modified,  joined  by  a  turn. 
Remark.  —  The  capital  stem  is  modified  by  being  made 
one  space  shorter,  and  making  the  upper  part  almost  straight, 
similar  to  H  and  K. 

Formation. — Begin  at  the  base-line,  make  the  right 
curve  with  a  bold  sweep,  and  at  one-third  the  height  lessen 
the  slant,  ascend  to  the  full  height,  make  a  narrow  turn  to  the 
left,  descend  with  the  left  curve  two-thirds,  turn  to  the  right 
with  a  bold  turn,  ascend  to  one-third  from  the  top,  and  finish 
with  the  modified  capital  stem. 

The  width  of  G  is  one  space ;  of  the  loop,  half  a  space. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  85 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Change  of  slant  in  the  first  up- 
stroke. (2.)  Crossing  of  the  loop  at  one-third  from  the  base- 
line :  this  is  the  level  of  the  turn.  (3.)  Making  the  stem 
two-thirds  of  the  height.  (4.)  Straightness  of  the  upper  part 
of  stem.  (5.)  Running  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  under,  and 
making  the  finishing-oval  half  the  height  of  the  letter. 

THE   EIGHTH   PRINCIPLE,   OR   DIRECT   OVAL. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  the 
Eighth  Principle,  or  Direct  Oval, 
are  the  left,  right,  and  left  curves. 
This  principle  is  subject  to  some 
modifications,  which  will  be  noticed  under  the  letters  where 
they  occur. 

Remark.  —  This  principle  is  found  in  five  letters,  —  O,  I), 
E,  C,  G. 

Formation.  —  Begin  at  the  top,  make  a  full  left  curve,  with 
a  swelling  shade  heaviest  in  the  middle  of  the  curve,  then  a 
broad  turn,  ascend  with  the  right  curve  similar  to  the  left,  turn 
a  little  below  the  top,  and  descend  with  a  left  curve  one-fourth 
of  the  width  from  the  first,  ending  near  the  base-line. 

The  width  of  the  oval  on  its  short  diameter  equals  half  its 
length. 

Remark.  —  It  should  be  especially  noticed  that  the  sides 
of  the  oval  are  parallel. 

Illustration.  —  1.  Place  a  simple  oval  on 
the  board,  having  the  required  proportions. 
Draw  its  long  diameter,  and  then  a  horizontal 
line  through  its  centre.  Call  attention  to  the 
character  of  the  several  curves  thus  separated.  Fig.  1  is  long, 
and  comparatively  slight;  Fig.  2  short,  fully  curved,  and  form- 
ing the  bend  of  the  turn;  Fig.  3  long  and  slight,  like  the 
first ;  and  Fig.  4  short,  fully  curved,  and  forming  the  bend  of 
the  turn,  like  the  second. 

This  will  be  found  very  helpful  to  the  scholars  in  writing 


86 


MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 


this  letter.  The  two  great  difficulties  are,  moving  out  to  the 
left  at  the  beginning  to  get  the  curvature  of  the  first  curve, 
and  turning  soon  enough  in  the  lower  curve  to  get  a  broad 
turn. 

"2.  The  force  of  habit  is  here  strikingly 
illustrated,  and  the  scholars  should  be  cau- 
tioned accordingly.  What  is  the  general 
habit  we  have  striven  to  form?  Is  it  not  to 
make  a  straight  down-stroke,  a  narrow  turn,  and  the  curved 
up-stroke  with  increased  slant  ?  Our  second  illustration  shows 
the  0  generally  made  by  scholars  in  their  first  attempts.  It 
is  really  the  First  Principle  turned  into  an  0.  Place  the 
error  on  the  board,  draw  the  First  Principle  on  it,  and  give 
the  required  warning.  Then  write  the  First  Principle,  and 
turn  it  into  the  incorrect  O,  so  that  they  may  fully  compre- 
hend the  idea. 

Next  place  the  First  Principle  again  on  the 
board,  and  write  the  0  over  it,  noticing  the 
curved  down-stroke  instead  of  the  straight 
one,  the  broad  turn  instead  of  the  narrow  one, 
and  the  parallel  sides  of  the  oval  instead  of  the  angular  sides 
of  the  principle.     Show  that  none  of  the  lines  coincide. 

Exercise.  —  Drill    the    scholars    on    Movement   Exercises 
Nos.  29,  30. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts 
of  D  are  Seventh  Principle 
modified,  horizontal  loop, 
Element  III.,  and  Eighth 
Principle. 

Formation.  — Begin  the  Seventh  Principle  one  space  from 
the  top,  and  write  it  with  increased  slant ;  at  the  base-line 
make  a  horizontal  loop  as  in  L,  touch  the  base-line  again  on 
the  right  side,  ascend  with  the  right  curve,  going  well  over  to 
the  left  to  reach  the  full  height  on  the  left  side  of  the  stem, 
and  finish  with  the  Eighth  Principle  slightly  modified  in  size. 
By  reference  to  the  diagram  of  width  given  above,  which 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS.  87 

should  bo  placed  on  the  board,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the 
width  of  I),  on  the  short  diameter  of  the  oval  front  produced, 
is  divided  into  five  equal  distances, — one  between  the  left 
curves,  two  between  the  inner  left  and  the  right,  and  one  on 
each  side  of  the  stem. 

Illustration.  —  Place  an  oval  with  broad 
turns,  two  and  a  half  spaces  wide,  on  the 
board.  Introduce  the  stem,  horizontal  loop, 
and  line  touching  the  base-line  on  the  right, 
then  the  oval  front.  Use  red  chalk,  if  convenient,  for  the 
first  oval,  shown  by  the  dotted  line ;  and  fill  in  the  D  with 
white. 

This  illustration  shows  that  the  general  outline  of  the  letter 
is  a  broad  oval. 

Remark.  —  The  force  of  habit  here  again 
asserts  itself.  The  back  of  the  D  is  carried  up 
on  the  usual  up-slant :  this  makes  a  peak  at  the 
top  on  the  right  side  of  the  stem,  before  a  turn 
can  be  made  to  descend  for  the  front,  which  is,  consequently, 
also  spoiled.  This  fault  will  be  avoided  by  noticing  that 
the  back  of  the  D  is  the  right  side  of  an  oval,  as  indicated  by 
the  dotted  line  in  the  diagram. 

Critical  Points. — (1.)  Slant  of  the  stem.  (2.)  Touching 
base-line  on  right  side  of  stem.  (3.)  Narrow  lobe,  half  a  space 
wide.  (4.)  Highest  point  to  the  left  of  the  stem.  (5.)  Full 
front  of  correct  proportions  as  to  width  and  depth. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  E  are 
an  oval  top,  joining  loop,  and  Eighth 
Principle  modified. 

The  Eighth  Principle  here  is  nearly 
two-thirds  the  height  of  the  letter. 
Formation.  —  Begin  at  the  top,  with  the  left  curve  slight- 
ly shaded ;  descend  two-thirds  of  a  space  ;  make  a  narrow  turn ; 
ascend  with  right  curve  ;  turn  at  the  top  to  the  left,  and  descend 
with  left  curve,  dropping  it  a  little  as  it  comes  forward  as  far 
as  a  slanting  line  through  the  right  curve  of  the  top ;  make 


88  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

the   narrow  loop,  throwing   the   curve  well   over  to   the   left, 
and  finish  with  the  Eighth  Principle  modified  in  size. 

The  width  of  the  top  oval  is  half  that  of  the  lower.  The  top 
is  placed  over  the  middle  of  the  lower  oval  (see  the  second 
part  of  the  diagram  below).  The  joining  loop  is  one-third  of 
the  height  of  the  letter  from  the  top. 

The  joining  loop  points  downwards  towards  the  right.  The 
downward  inclination  of  this  little  loop  is  the  key  to  the  whole 
letter,  as  will  be  shown  in  a  succeeding  illustration. 

Illustration.  —  Draw  the  scale 
on  the  board,  place  in  it  an  oval  two 
spaces  high,  and  then  a  small  oval  one 
space  high,  and  half  the  width  of  the 
lower  oval,  intersecting  the  larger  oval,  as  shown  in  the  dia- 
gram.    Then  make  the  E  in  it. 

This  shows  that  the  outline  of  the  letter  arises  from  two  in- 
tersecting ovals,  and  that  the  joining  loop  points  downwards. 

This  latter  point  being,  as  we  have  said,  the 
key  to  this  very  difficult  letter,  the  accom- 
panying diagram  is  given  to  prove  it.  If  the 
lower  curve  of  the  loop  is  carried  up,  which  is 
the  natural  tendency,  or  even  made  level,  it  is  evident  that  it 
is  impossible  to  carry  the  upper  curve  of  the  loop  over  in  such 
a  way  as  to  form  the  rounding  back  of  the  lower  oval  half  a 
space  bej'ond  the  left  side  of  the  head.  The  diagram  (Fig.  1) 
shows  that  the  line  will  so  descend  as  to  make  the  whole  back 
of  the  letter  on  the  same  straight  line  ;  and  the  more  an  effort 
is  made  to  carry  the  line'  back,  the  worse  is  the  result. 
Another  error  also  necessarily  arises,  —  making  the  lower  oval 
slant  out  too  much  in  front. 

The  whole  difficulty  will  be  avoided  if  the  top  is  made  as  in 
the  diagram  (Fig.  2),  with  the  lower  line  of  the  loop  descend- 
ing and  reaching  forward  as  far  as  a  line  on  the  slant  through 
the  front  of  the  top. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Making  the  top  one-third  and  the 
lower  oval  two-thirds  the  height.      (2.)   Making  the   joining 


ELEMENTS,  'PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS. 


89 


loop  incline  downwards  to  the  right.      (3.)  Broad  turn   at  the 
bottom. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  C  are 
the  loop  of  the  Fifth  Principle  and 
the  Eighth  Principle  modified. 

Remark.  —  The  Eighth  Principle 
is  here  only  half  the  height  of  the 
letter. 
Formation.  —  Begin  on  the  base-line  with  the  right  curve, 
give  it  full  slant,  and  at  one  space  in  height  lessen  the  slant, 
us  directed  for  the  Fifth  Principle;  ascend  to  the  full  height, 
make  a  narrow  turn,  descend  with  the  left  curve,  cross,  and 
begin  the  turn  at  one-third  from  the  base-line,  make  the  turn 
broad,  ascend  with  the  right  curve,  turn  at  half  the  height, 
and  finish  with  the  left  curve,  ending  near  the  base-line. 

The  width  of  the  loop  is  half  a  space  ;  of  the  oval,  one  space 
and  a  third.  The  length  of  the  loop  is  two-thirds  the  height 
of  the  letter.  The  distance  between  the  left  curves  is  one- 
third  the  width  of  the  oval. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Changing  the  slant  of  the  first  up- 
stroke at  the  height  of  one  space.  (2.)  Crossing  one-third 
from  the  base-line.  (3.)  Broad  turn  at  the  base.  (4.)  Mak- 
ing final  oval  half  the  height. 


THE   NINTH   PRINCIPLE,   OR  INVERTED   OVAL. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  the 
Ninth  Principle,  or  Inverted 
Oval,  are  the  left,  right,  left  and 
right  curves. 

This  Principle  is  subject  to    modifications,   which  will    be 
noticed  as  they  occur. 

Remark.  —  This  Principle  is  found  in  seven  letters,  —  X, 
Z,  Q,  W,  V,  U,  Y. 

Formation.  —  Begin  at  half  the  height  of  the  letter;  make 
the  left  curve  upwards ;  turn  to  the  right  a  little  above  the 


90  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

height  of  the  main  part  of  the  letter;  descend  with  the  right 
curve,  and  turn  to  the  left  one  space  above  the  base-line ; 
ascend  with  the  left  curve  two-thirds  of  the  distance  across  the 
oval ;  turn  to  the  right,  and  cross  a  little  below  the  top  of  the 
first  oval ;  and  descend  with  the  right  curve  shaded,  ending  on 
the  base-line. 

The  length  of  the  oval  is,  therefore,  two-thirds  of  the  height 
of  the  letter.  The  width  of  the  Principle  across  the  short 
diameter  of  the  oval  is  about  two  spaces  ;  the  distance  be- 
tween the  sides  of  the  looped  part,  one  space ;  and  between 
the  curves  on  either  side,  half  a  space. 

The  shade  is  heaviest  opposite  the  centre  of  the  oval 
front. 

Illustration.  —  The  force  of  habit  again 
leads  the  scholars  into  error.  They  usually 
make  the  curvature  and  slant  of  the  first  up- 
stroke like  that  of  the  Second  Principle,  as 
shown  in  the  diagram.  To  correct  this,  the  first  line  must 
have  the  full  curvature  and  the  slant  of  the  first  side  of  an 
oval. 

Exercise.  —  Drill  the  scholars  on  Movement  Exercises 
Nos.  31,  32. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  curvature  and  slant  of  the 
first  up-stroke.     (2.)  The  proportions. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of 
X  are  the  Ninth  Principle,  and 
the  Eighth  modified,  the  two 
parts  touching  at  the  middle. 
Formation.  -  •  Make  the  Ninth  Principle  as  before 
directed.  Next  begin  well  out  to  the  right  at  the  top,  make 
the  left  curve  touching  the  first  part  in  the  middle,  and  finish 
with  the  direct  oval,  as  in  C,  rising  to  half  the  height  of  the 
letter. 

The  width  of  this  final  oval  is  one  space  and  a  third. 
Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Those  of  the    Ninth    Principle. 
(2.)  Those  of  final  oval  in  C. 


ELEMENTS,    PRINCIPLES,    AND    LETTERS. 


91 


Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  Z  are 
the  Ninth  Principle,  and  the  Sixth 
joined  to  the  upper  part  by  a  loop 
and  turn. 

Formation.  —  Make  the  Ninth 
Principle,  and,  when  the  base-line  is 
reached,  ascend  on  the  left  side  to 
form  a  loop  half  a  space  high,  turn  to  the  right,  and  make  the 
lower  looped-stem. 

Remake.  —  When  one  Z  comes  under  another,  care  must 
be  taken  to  slant  the  main  down-strokes  correctly,  and  to  place 
the  head  of  the  lower  Z  beside  and  close  to  the  lower  loop  of 
the  upper  one.  If  this  is  not  attended  to,  each  succeeding  Z 
will  be  farther  to  the  right,  and  the  appearance  of  the  copy 
will  be  spoiled. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Making  the  last  down-stroke  of 
the  upper  part  slant  under  enough.  (2.)  Keeping  the  lower 
loop  on  the  proper  slant. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  Q  are 
the  Ninth  Principle,  a  horizontal  loop, 
and  double  curve. 

Formation.  —  Make  the  Ninth 
Principle,  carrying  the  lower  part  of  the  last  down-stroke  a 
little  more  under  ;  go  forward  to  make  the  horizontal  loop, 
return  to  the  base-line  on  the  right  side,  and  finish  with  a 
double  curve  rising  one  space  above  the  base-line,  as  in  L. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Those  of  the  Ninth  Principle. 
(2.)  Carrying  the  down-stroke  well  under  and  forward.  (3.) 
Touching  the  base-line  again  on  the  right  side  of  the  main 
down-stroke. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of 
W  are  the  Ninth  Principle, 
the  right  curve,  and  the  left 
curve  repeated. 

Formation.  — Begin  with  the  Ninth  Principle,  and  from 
the  point  on  the  base-line  make  a  slight  right  curve  extend- 


92  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

ing  to  the  full  height ;  descend  with  a  slight  left  curve,  giving 
this  line  a  little  bearing  to  the  right ;  at  the  base-line  move 
the  pen  forward  very  slightly  to  take  off  the  sharp  point,  and 
finish  with  the  right  curve  to  two-thirds  the  height.  The 
curvature  of  this  line  is  somewhat  increased  in  the  upper 
part. 

The  extreme  width  of  the  letter,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
above  diagram,  is  three  spaces.  Across  the  middle  are  three 
equal  distances. 

Take  care  to  keep  the  lines  separate,  except  at  the  point  at 
the  top  and  base  line. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  Those  of  the  Ninth  Principle. 
(2.)  Keeping  the  successive  parts  separata  except  at  the 
joining  point,  and  yet  close  enough  to  it.  (3.)  The  set  of  the 
third  part.      (4.)   The  even  distances  across  the  middle. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of  V  are 
the  Ninth  Principle,  turn,  and  left 
curve. 

Formation.  —  Make  the  Ninth 
Principle,  and,  when  near  the  base-line,  make  a  narrow  turn 
to  the  right,  and  finish  with  the  left  curve  at  one  space  from 
the  top,  as  in  W. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  The  main  down-stroke :  take 
care  not  to  twist  it.  (2.)  Ending  the  last  line  at  two  spaces 
in  height. 

Analysis.  —  The  parts  of 
TJ  are    the   Ninth    Principle, 


turn,  right  curve,  and  First 
Principle  extended  an  addi- 
tional space. 

Formation.  — Begin  with  the  Ninth  Principle,  and  turn 
on  the  base-line,  as  in  V ;  ascend  with  the  right  curve  two 
spaces  in  height,  finish  with  First  Principle,  terminating  with 
a  wave-line  one  space  above  the  base-line. 

Critical  Points.  —  (1.)  That  of  the  first  part,  as  in  V. 
(2.)  The  width  between  the  main  down-strokes. 


THE    FIGURES. 


93 


Analysis.  —  The  parts  of 
1"  are  the  Ninth  Principle, 
turn,  right  curve,  and  Sixth 
Principle  with  the  straight  line 
extended  an  additional  space. 
Formation.  —  P>egin  with 
the  Ninth  Principle,  and,  when 
near  the  base-line,  turn  as  in  U.  and  ascend  with  the  right 
curve  two  spaces  in  height ;  descend  with  a  straight  line,  and 
linish  with  the  Sixth  Principle.  Observe  carefully  the  width 
of  the  letter. 

Critical    Points.  —  (1.)  Those  of   the  Ninth    Principle- 
(2.)  Those  of  the  Sixth  Principle. 


THE  FIGURES. 


The  figure  1  is  about  one  space  and  a  half  high.  It  is  gen- 
ially written  as  a  simple  slanting  straight  line,  beginning  fine,, 
with  increasing  shade  to  the  base. 

The  figure  2  begins  a  little  higher  than  one  space,  descend* 
\rith  right  curve  to  half  the  height  of  the  figure,  ascends  with 
left  curve  to  about  one  space  and  a  half,  descends  with  shaded 
right  curve,  and  is  finished  like  Q.  Its  head  is  an  inverted 
oval. 

The  figure  3  begins  like  2 ;  but  its  head  occupies  one-third 
instead  of  half  the  figure.  A  small  loop  is  formed,  project- 
ing a  little  to  the  left ;  and  it  is  finished  with  the  shaded 
right  curve  and  the  left  curve.  The  general  form  of  the  lower 
part  is  oval. 

The  figure  4  begins  one  space  high,  with  a  slanting  straight 
line  to  one-fourth  of  a  space  from  the  base-line;  then  a  hori- 
zontal  straight  line  is  projected  to  the  right.     The  latter  is 


D4  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

crossed  by  a  slight  left  curve  one  space  and  a  half  high.  The 
first  line  has  a  decreasing  shade. 

The  figure  5  is  like  3,  except  that  the  top  is  a  straight  line 
instead  of  an  inverted  oval.  It  has  also  a  small  curve  from 
the  top  of  this  upper  straight  line.  Its  height  is  one  space 
and  a  half. 

The  figure  6  begins  one  space  and  three-quarters  in  height, 
descends  with  a  slanting  straight  line  having  a  decreasing 
shade,  and  is  finished  with  a  direct  oval  one  space  high. 

The  figure  7  begins  about  one  space  and  a  quarter  in  height 
with  a  short  and  slight  right  curve,  having  a  decreasing  shade  ; 
from  the  bottom  of  this  starts  a  double  curve ;  and  the  figure  is 
finished  with  a  left  curve  having  an  increasing  shade  extend- 
ing half  a  space  below  the  base-line. 

The  figure  8  begins  at  the  height  of  one  space,  with  the 
right  curve  carried  over  to  the  left  to  the  height  of  half  a  space, 
then  a  double  curve  shaded  in  the  lower  half,  and  is  finished 
with  a  left  curve  crossing  the  double  curve  through  the 
middle. 

The  figure  9  consists  of  pointed  oval,  as  in  a,  extending  from 
one  space  and  a  third  to  a  third  of  a  space  from  the  base-line ; 
^nd  is  finished  with  a  straight  line,  having  an  increasing  shade, 
to  half  a  space  below  the  base-line. 

The  figure  O  is  a  simple  oval,  one   space  in  height. 


ON   TEACHING   SENTENCES. 

The  directions  hitherto  given  have  been  especially  directed 
to  elementary  instruction,  and  apply  more  particularly  to  the 
first  four  Numbers  of  our  series.  The  scholars,  if  our  direc- 
tions have  been  faithfully  followed,  will  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  letters  and  their  critical  points,  as  well  as 
-of  their  combination  in  words  ;  and  ought  also  to  have  acquired 


ON   TEACHING   SENTENCES.  95 

the  ability  to   execute   them   accurately  with    a  tolerably  easy 
movement. 

The  two  following  numbers  introduce  them  to  sentences. 
These  are  much  more  difficult,  on  account  of  the  much  greater 
variety  of  combinations.  The  work  of  the  teacher  now 
assumes  a  more  general  aspect.  He  directs  attention  to  what 
have  been  neatly  termed  the  five  S's,  —  size,  slant,  shape, 
spacing,  and  shading. 

The  first  two  or  three  copies  may  be  written  with  especial 
attention  to  size  and  slant,  remembering  that  size  includes, 
besides  the  uniform  height  of  the  short  letters,  the  correct 
extension  of  the  stems  and  loops  above  and  below,  and  the 
height  of  the  capitals ;  while  slant  must  not  be  confined  to 
the  short  letters  and  capitals  only,  but  must  include  the  stems 
and  loops. 

Then  shape  may  assume  prominence  in  its  various  features 
of  straightness  of  down-strokes,  shortness  of  lower  turn,  car- 
rying the  up-strokes  well  over  for  the  upper  turn,  making  the 
side  of  the  oval  and  fourth  principle  parallel,  correct  loops,  and 
capitals. 

Next,  spacing  may  be  taken  up  for  criticism,  according  to 
the  directions  we  have  already  given. 

Lastly,  shading  should  receive  especial  attention,  according 
to  our  previous  directions. 

We  need  scarcely  say  that  we  do  not  mean  that  any  of 
these  should  be  neglected  at  any  time  by  the  scholars,  but 
that  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  concentrate  the  attention  of 
the  class,  and  his  criticism,  now  on  one  point,  now  on  another. 

The  sentences  should,  of  course,  be  written  across  the  page, 
and  not  word  by  word  down  it,  or  the  very  purpose  of  the 
training  will  be  defeated.  The  words  must  be  kept  exactly 
under  each  other. 

The  position,  penholding,  and  movements  of  the  scholars 
should  be  carefully  watched,  and  frequently  criticised- 


96  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


DIFFICULT   COMBINATIONS. 


In  writing  sentences,  a  few  difficult  combinations  of  letters 
occur,  which  will  require  special  attention.  When  the  right 
curve  at  the  end  of  a  letter  unites  with  a  left  curve  at  the 
beginning  of  one  following,  the  curve  is  changed  at  the  mid- 
dle of  the  height,  as  when  n  follows  u. 

If  the  lower  looped  stems,  which  are  generally  finished  with 
the  left  curve,  are  joined  to  letters  which  begin  with  the  right 
•curve,  the  latter  supersedes  the  former  from  the  crossing,  as  in 
h  or  i  following  g. 

To  write  e  after  the  level  curve-finish  of  b  or  o,  the  curve 
must  be  dropped  half  a  space,  and  then  carried  up  with  the 
down-slant  to  form  the  loop  of  e;  which  is,  therefore,  a  little 
shortened  for  acommodation.  In  combinations  like  or,  os,  care 
must  be  taken  to  make  the  level  curve  very  short,  and  not  to 
carry  it  too  high  for  the  r  and  s.  The  curve  must  be  made 
short,  and  the  slant  changed,  when  t  or  2^  follow  this  curve,  as 
in  ot,  op.  When  a  follows,  the  curve  must  be  carried  far 
enough  forward  to  make  the  pointed  projection  of  the  fourth 
principle. 

The  double  letters  bb,  11,  ff,  will  require  much  care,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  principles  already  laid  down. 


BUSINESS   PENMANSHIP. 

When  the  eye  and  hand  have  been  well  trained  on  the  accu- 
rate and  elaborate  forms  of  the  standard  letters,  continued  prac- 
tice naturally  runs,  from  the  urgency  of  business,  into  sim- 
plicity :  therefore,  in  the  course  of  this  chapter,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  forms  given  for  business  are  more  simple  than  those 
for  the  standard  letters. 

It   may  naturally  be    asked  why   the   more   simple    forms 


BUSINESS    PENMANSHIP.  97 

should  not  be  given  first.  We  answer,  Because  they  are 
derived  from  the  standard  forms  by  modification  or  contrac- 
tion ;  and  hence  a  knowledge  of  the  latter  conduces  to  a  hand- 
some execution  of  the  former. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  essential  movements  are  the  same 
in  the  execution  of  both ;  hence  there  is  nothing  to  unlearn  : 
and  attention  to  the  almost  mathematical  exactness  of  pro- 
portion in  the  forms  of  the  standard  letters  prepares  admira- 
bly for  the  thorough  perception  and  the  free  and  rapid  execu- 
tion of  the  exquisite  curves  of  a  business  style. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  more  simple  the 
letter,  the  greater  is  the  perfection  of  form  needed  for  its 
beauty  of  appearance. 

In  our  series  of  copy-books,  Nos.  7,  11,  and  12  are  devoted 
to  the  exhibition  of  business-writing.  No.  12  gives  a  great 
variety  of  letters  used  by  business  men ;  No.  11,  various 
words  and  short  forms,  such  as  ledger-headings  used  in  busi- 
ness ;  while  No.  7  contains  forms  of  notes,  due-bills,  receipts, 
and  accounts. 

We  now  proceed  to  show  the  various  forms  which  our  best 
penmen  use,  and  which  are  valuable  for  their  grace,  ease,  and 
rapidity. 

The  forms 
Figs.  1,  2,  4,  5, 
may  be  used 
generally,  if  preferred.  The  w  has  the  first  lines  united  in  a 
point  like  u  ;  r  begins  like  n,  but  the  second  up-stroke  leaves 
the  main  line  at  the  shoulder,  to  prevent  its  being  mistaken 
for  v ;  x  is  crossed  by  a  line  parallel  to  the  down-stroke,  just 
to  the  right  of  the  lower  turn  ;  c  is  written  by  returning  a  lit- 
tle on  the  up-stroke,  which  in  this  case  is  the  right  curve,  then 
forming  the  head,  and  crossing  the  up-stroke  like  the  e,  from 
which  it  is  distinguished  by  the  semi-loop  in  the  head. 

The  forms  -bigs.  3  and  6  are  used  for  final  letters.  The  r 
in  this  style  makes  a  very  graceful  finish  to  a  word  ;  and  the  s 
is  used  in  this  form  at  the  end  of  words  for  the  sake  of  rapid- 


V)8 


MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 


ity,  the  lower  turn  and  dot  and  tlie  usual  finishing  up-stroke 


being  omitted. 


These  forms,  except  Figs.  2,  3,  and  6,  are  used  only  a? 
finals  :  those  excepted  may  be  used  in  any  position.  Observe 
that  stems  ending  square  on  the  line  are  made  with  an 
increasing  shade,  and  that  the  shade  is  transferred  from  the 
stem  to  the  oval  in  the  forms  Figs.  4  and  5. 

This  2J  and  %  can  De  used 
anywhere,  as  preferred  :  the  / 
is  a  final.  The  stems  are 
straight,  with  graduated  shade 
and  very  narrow  turn.  The 
up-stroke  must  be  carried  up 
close  to  the  stem. 

These  are  very 
commonly  used  in  a 
free  hand  as  finals, 
and  are  applicable  to 
all  the  lower  looped  stems.  In  Fig.  1  the  loop  is  changed 
into  a  simple  straight  and  shaded  line,  as  shown  ;  in  Fig.  2 
it  has  a  narrow  turn,  and  is  carried  up  on  the  right  side;  in 
Figs.  3  and  4,  curved  more  or  less,  and  shaded ;  and  in  Fig. 
5,  swung  under  with  a  fine  unshaded  stroke. 

The  stem  given  in  Fig.  2  cannot,  of  course,  be  used  for  g,. 
i.s  it  would  then  become  a  q. 

The  looped  stems, 
if  preferred,  may  be 
begun  and  finished 
with  a  waved  line. 
Figs.  1  and  2  show 
how  happily  they  ac- 


BUSINESS   PENMANSHIP.  99 

cord  when  thus  made.  The  length  of  the  initial  and  final 
lines  is  in  this  ease  somewhat  increased.  Figs.  3  and  4  show 
elegant  forms  of  initial  and  terminating  lines.  The  double 
curves  are  as  easily  made  as  single  ones ;  and  are  certainly 
more  graceful,  and  agreeable  to  the  eye.  The  accomplished 
penman  will  not  be  satisfied  without  them.  They  are  espe- 
cially suited  for  ladies. 

This  diagram 
shows  various  be- 
ginnings and  ter- 
minations, which 
may  be  used  for 
those  letters  to  which  they  are  adapted. 

Fig.  1  is  an  off-hand  beginning  to  such  letters  as  usually 
begin  with  a  single  curve,  as  shown  by  the  curve  below  (see  C, 
G,  H,  K,  L,  S,  in  the  standard  forms).  To  a  practised  hand 
this  is  quite  easy,  and  should  be  written  with  a  free  fore-arm 
movement.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  lower  curve  crosses 
the  final  oval  of  the  stem  through  the  middle. 

Fig.  2  is  a  smaller  beginning,  and  is  suited  for  letters  writ- 
ten with  a  straight  stem,  as  shown  below  in  P,  B,  R,  H,  K, 
W.  For  these  same  letters  Fig.  3  may  be  used,  if  preferred  :  it 
should  begin  below  the  base-line.  Sometimes,  also,  a  simple 
curve  is  used,  as  below.  In  the  selection,  natural  taste,  and 
facility  of  execution,  should  be  the  guide. 

In  writing  the  oval  beginnings,  it  is  important  to  observe 
their  slant,  and  to  take  care  that  they  do  not  sink  down  or 
project  on  a  level,  but  have  their  long  diameter  on  the  same 
slant  as  that  of  the  cval  termination  of  the  capital-stem. 

Figs.  4  and  5  show  a  strengthened  termination  to  an  easily- 
struck  line,  used  by  many  writers  to  increase  the  firmness  of 
character,  or  to  avoid  an  unfinished  appearance.  It  is  not  a 
dot  or  bulb,  but  simply  a  shade  arising  from  a  slight  and 
gradual  increase  of  pressure  ended  abruptly. 

Fig.  7  is  the  oval  finish  used  in  standard  letters.  For 
greater  rapidity,  this  has  been  superseded  by  Fig.  8,  —  a  turn 


100 


MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


of  medium  width  rinished  by  a  wave-line.  Sometimes  Fig. 
6,  the  last  down-stroke  of  the  letter,  is  carried  downwards 
and  forwards  below  the  base-line,  and  thrown  back  through 
the  letter,  completing  an  oval  form.  Succeeding  small  letters 
may  be  begun  close  to  the  down-stroke,  and  written  through 
the  up-stroke  without  objection. 

The  capital  0  may  be  finished  in  the  same  way ;  or,  for  the 
>ake  of  variety,  the  up-stroke  may  be  thrown  back  with  a 
wave-line.  Another  method  of  finish  for  this  letter  is  to  carry 
■  lie  last  down-stroke  through  the  base  of  the  letter,  and  go  up 
on  the  right  side  like  the  wave-finish  (Fig.  8). 

The  standard  capital- 
stem  is  frequently 
changed,  as  above,  to  one 
written  downwards, 
nearly  straight,  and  with  increasing  shade.  It  is  sometimes 
begun  with  a  single  curve  (Figs.  3,  4)  ;  or  with  a  wave-line,  as 
in  Fig.  3  of  previous  diagram.  In  some  letters  it  has  a  nar- 
row turn  and  up-stroke  on  the  right,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4  and 
in  the  next  diagram. 


This  diagram   illustrates   the   application  of   the    changed 
capital-stem  to  various  letters. 


Further  adaptations  of  the  capital-stem  are  here  shown. 
In  writing  this  L  (Fig.  1),  the  dot  is  made  by  a  downward 
movement,  and  retraced.  In  Figs.  2  and  3,  the  connecting 
line  is  carried  from  the  dot  below  the  base-line  to  the  next  let- 
ter.    Fig.  4  shows  a    rapid  style  of  stem  for  the  F,  in  which 


BUSINESS    PI.NMANSHlk 


lot 


the  oval  termination  is  written  nearly  on  the  usual  slant  of  the 
writing.  The  last  letter  shows  a  convenient  head  for  T  (Fig, 
7) :  while  5  and  G  show  how  it  may  be  finished  with  a  dot,  or 
with  an  oval  and  dot. 

Th  e  natural 
variations  of  the 
standard  form 
(Fig.  1)  arising 
.n  rapid  writing  are  here  shown.  The  tendency  is  to  diminish 
the  size  of  the  loop ;  and,  in  very  rapid  business-writing,  to  dis- 
pense with  it  altogether.  Fig.  3  is  especially  recommended 
for  ladies  :  it  is  very  elegant. 


We  here  illustrate  the  application  of  the  fourth  form  of  the 
last  diagram  to  various  letters,  for  the  convenience  of  business 
penmen. 


The  same  principle  further  illustrated,  showing  the  ten- 
dency in  business-writing  to  dispense  with  all  superfluous 
lines.  We  have  added  a  very  handsome  and  popular  form  of 
S  and  G. 


These    letters   are   formed   from    the    standard    direct    oval 
modified.     They  are  the  natural  results  of  free  movement  in 


102 


MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


rapid  writing,  necessitated  by  the  urgency  of  business.  They 
are  all  derived,  as  may  be  easily  seen,  from  the  standard  forms 
given  in  previous  pages ;  except  A,  which  is  a  capitalized  form 
of  the  small  a. 

In  writing  this  form  of  Z),  carry  the  stem  down  to  the  line, 
and  make  the  loop  point  downwards  :  the  final  line  is  carried 
down  on  the  right  of  the  stem,  instead  of  passing  over  to  the 
front. 


MARKS,  SIGNS,  AND  ABBREVIATIONS. 


We  here  append  certain  marks,  signs,  and  abbreviations 
which  are  generally  used  in  business,  with  such  explanations 
as  may  be  useful  to  those  unacquainted  with  them. 

Fig.  1  is 
the  business 
abbreviation 
for  "  at :  '    for 

instance,  two  pairs  of  shoes  at  three  dollars  a  pair.  The  a 
should  be  written  smaller  than  the  figures,  and  the  final  up- 
stroke swung  easily  and  gracefully  over  and  round  it.  Fig.  2 
is  the  abbreviation  for  "  cents : "  the  c  should  be  made  nearly 
at  the  height  of  the  figures,  as  shown ;  and  small,  like  the  a. 
Fig.  3  is  a  common  form  for  "per  cent."  Observe  the  position, 
size,  and  connection  of  the  o's.  Fig.  4  is  the  usual  abbrevia- 
tion for  the  Latin  words  "et  caetera,"  meaning  ''and  so  forth." 
The  first  form  is  sometimes  called  the  "  ampersand,"  and  stands 
for  "et,"  and ;  the  "  c  "  for  "  caetera,"  "  so  forth,"  or  "  the  rest." 
The  ampersand  is  begun  on  the  right-hand  side. 


r?    <-:'>' 


.£#: 


/  ,   / 


s 


Fig.  1  is  the  sign   used   for  the  word  "number"  on   boxes 


VARIETY    OF    CAPITALS.  103 

and  in  bills  of  lading :  it  is  formed  by  drawing  two  parallel 
lines,  and  crossing  them  by  two  oblique  parallel  lines.  Fig.  2 
illustrates  an  abbreviated  method  of  writing  "one-half :"  in 
Fig.  3  the  half  is  expressed  fractionally.  Fig.  4  shows  the 
sign  for  the  United-States  dollar:  it  was  probably  derived 
from  one  of  the  pillars  with  a  scroll  on  the  Spanish  dollar;  but 
on  this  point  antiquarians  are  not  agreed. 

We  here 
append  a 
few  forms  of 

figures  frequently  used  by  business-men,  which  will  be  appre- 
ciated for  their  freedom  and  beauty. 


/  1       ■  -V        /   ■  " 


VARIETY   OF   CAPITALS. 

Our  object  in  the  three  accompanying  plates  under  this 
title  is  to  show  the  natural  modifications  and  developments  of 
the  standard  forms  of  the  capitals.  The  first  three  lines  show 
those  of  the  three  principles ;  then  the  letters  themselves  are 
given  in  alphabetical  order. 

We  have  already  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  our  present 
script  is  derived  from  the  Roman  letters  through  the  Italic. 
This  is  important;  because,  whatever  variety  of  form  we  may 
invent,  we  must  always  be  careful  to  preserve  the  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  of  the  Roman  type,  or  the  identity  of  the 
letter  will  be  lost.  It  also  furnishes  us  with  a  guide  as  to  the 
directions  in  which  we  may  give  free  play  to  our  fancy.  We 
shall  merely  indicate  these,  without  going  into  an  examination 
of  the  whole. 

Take  the  capital-stem  for  instance,  as  shown  in  the  first  two 
lines.  It  is  the  script  representation  of  the  vertical  straight 
line  in  the  Roman  letter.  As  to  form,  it  may  be  waved, 
straight,  or  simply  curved.     As  to  commencement,  it  may  be 


104  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 

made  without  an  initial  line,  with  one,  or,  in  a  letter  like  Hy 
may  begin  with  a  small  inverted  oval.  As  to  termination,  it 
may  end  with  a  simple  or  compound  oval,  witli  a  dot,  or  be 
devoid  of  any.  Shade  may  be  variously  used,  or  altogether 
dispensed  with.  It  may  be  made  of  different  heights.  Yet 
in  all  these  varieties  it  will  be  observed  that  the  stem-charac- 
ter is  preserved. 

If  we  consider  a  letter,  the  same  fact  is  apparent.  The  Ro- 
man B  consists  of  a  stem  and  two  lobes :  whatever  form  we 
invent  for  it  in  script,  these  features  must  be  retained. 

For  practical  use,  the  teacher  may  place  these  varieties  of 
form  in  order  on  the  board,  and  point  out  their  modifications 
and  developments  as  a  stimulus  to  the  inventive  powers  of 
the  scholars,  and  a  guide  to  their  taste,  allowing  them  to  use 
those  which  they  think  most  beautiful. 


OFF-HAND   CAPITALS. 

The  subject  of  Penmanship  would  hardly  be  presented  in  a 
complete  shape  unless  a  few  words  were  said  on  Off-hand 
Capitals,  of  which  a  complete  set  is  given  in  the  accompany- 
ing plates. 

In  these  the  attainment  of  practical  writing  culminates. 
They  are  the  adornment  of  business-penmanship,  besides 
affording  a  most  valuable  training  for  the  hand  in  acquiring 
perfect  movement. 

They  should  be  written  with  the  whole-arm  movement.  The 
shoulder,  in  this  case,  is  the  centre  of  motion  ;  and  no  part 
of  the  arm  should  touch  the  desk  or  paper  except  the  nails  of 
the  third  and  fourth  fingers,  used  to  steady  the  hand.  They 
should  be  struck  with  a  bold  and  fearless  movement,  and 
practised  constantly,  without  being  discouraged  by  failure  to 
obtain  handsome  forms  at  first.     Care  is  needed  to  keep  the 


LADIES'     HAND.  105 

pen  in  a  good  position,  so  that  the  points  may,  by  a  roll  of  the 
hand,  be  constantly  kept  at  right  angles  to  the  changing  direc- 
tion of  the  shade. 

The  Movement  Exercises  should  be  used  in  connection  with 
these  capitals.  The  principles  involved  are  the  same  as  in  the 
standard  letters,  —  the  capital-stem,  the  direct  oval,  and  tin- 
inverted  oval. 

Watch  the  movements,  and  adapt  them  to  the  work.  Study 
the  examples  given ;  endeavor  to  acquire  a  clear  mental  con- 
ception of  them ;  then  aim  to  produce  them.  Criticise  the 
work  done  5  try  and  discover  the  causes  of  failure  in  any  par- 
ticular ;  consider  definitely  what  must  be  done  to  correct  it ; 
then  make  the  effort.  Do  not  hesitate  to  allow  the  natural 
play  of  the  fingers  and  wrist  in  connection  with  the  move- 
ment of  the  arm.  Persistent  practice  will  certainly  lead  to 
success. 


LADIES'   HAND. 


We  are  satisfied,  from  experience,  that  it  is  desirable  for 
girls  to  write  the  six  numbers  of  the  Common-school  Series 
with  the  same  thoroughness  and  drill  as  are  required  of  boys. 
They  may  then  take  up  the  special  numbers  (Nos.  8,  9,  10) 
prepared  for  them. 

No.  8  contains  a  drill  on  the  small  letters,  words  beginning 
with  capitals,  and  short  sentences. 

No.  9  consists  partly  of  single  sentences,  and  partly  of 
couplets  from  standard  authors. 

No.  10  contains  notes  of  hand,  and  of  invitation  and  reply, 
bills,  and  extracts,  both  prose  and  poetry. 

The  accompanying  plate  shows  the  proportions  of  the  letters 
for  our  Ladies'  Hand  ;  gives  a  set  of  standard  capitals,  and  also 
of  those  most  frequently  used  by  writers  of  acknowledged 
taste.     To  these  is  added  a  suitable  style  of  figures. 


106  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

The  small  letters  are  given  singly,  so  that  each  represents 
the  connecting-line  to  be  used  either  for  beginning  or  ending 
a.  word.  This  line,  it  will  be  seen,  begins  or  ends  a  little 
helow  or  above  the  letters.  For  the  loops  a  wave-line  is  used, 
as  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  natural  grace  of  a  lady's  style. 

A  few  other  features  may  be  noticed.  In  the  capitals  the 
shades  are  more  delicate,  because  less  muscular  power  and 
movement  are  employed  in  their  execution,  and  more  of  finger 
and  hand,  than  in  business-writing.  Fortius  reason,  also,  the 
shades  are  placed  higher  on  the  stems,  and  the  indirect  oval 
beginnings  are  made  smaller.  In  the  advanced  style  of  capi- 
tals they  will  be  found  very  much  reduced  in  size,  —  the 
natural  tendency  of  a  rapid  style. 

We  would  add  the  caution,  to  beware  of  writing  too  small ; 
for  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  legibility  is  of  the 
first  importance.  Rapidity  and  beauty,  valuable  as  they  are, 
hold  but  the  second  place. 


Plate  n 


lariety  of  Capitals. 

PARTS   OF  LETTERS 
The  Seventh  Principle  and  modifications. 


Parts  used  for  the  Seventh  or  Ninth  Principles. 


Zhs  Eighth  Principle  and  mcdyicatums . 


The  Ninth  PnncipUnujdified. 


i^iate  ill 


Plate  IV. 


Ihrietij  of  Capitals. 


Plate  V. 


Plat- 


Plate  YD 

I 


—to 


■  s/f/'sM///M//'/<n<:        //s~r/us^sff^S/ryyy///sJ/<:1i 


~y  s 


/  /     ,      t 


/ 


ROMAN    LETTERS    ANALYZED.  107 


ROMAN   LETTERS   ANALYZED. 

To  render  this  manual  complete,  we  append  the  accompany- 
ing plates,  giving  the  several  Text  Hands  most  in  use,  to- 
gether with  one  presenting  them  of  reduced  size  for  ladies. 
A  Book  of  Alphabets  forms  part  of  our  system,  and  may  be 
advantageously  placed  in  the  scholar's  hands,  containing  sev- 
eral styles  besides  those  here  given,  and  equally  beautiful. 
The  ability  to  execute  the  Roman,  Italic,  Egyptian,  and  Brush 
Letters,  and  the  Old  English  and  German  Texts,  is  so  great  a 
convenience,  that  every  boy  and  girl  ought  to  learn  them  at 
some  period  of  their  school  education.  A  comparatively  short 
time  only  is  needed  for  their  acquisition  by  those  who  have 
been  instructed  in  penmanship  on  the  thorough  method  which 
this  Manual  advocates. 

Although  the  execution  of  letters  by  hand  preceded  the 
discovery  of  the  art  of  printing,  yet  the  old  text  hands  were 
adhered  to  ;  and  the  present  script  followed,  and  was  the  result 
of  that  discovery.  Hence  the  formation  of  the  script  letters 
may  be  easily  traced  from  the  Roman  through  the  Italic  to 
their  present  state.  This  fact  gives  additional  interest  to  the 
study  of  those  styles,  and  the  parallel  forms  of  the  Old  Eng- 
lish and  German  Text. 

Our  analysis  of  the  Roman  letters  renders  any  extended 
description,  unnecessary.  Each  letter  is  placed  on  a  frame- 
work of  small  squares,  which  is  formed  by  ruling  five  lines 
horizontally  and  vertically,  taking  for  a  standard  the  width 
desired  for  the  thick  parts  of  the  letters.  If  preferred,  these 
squares  can  be  drawn  by  hand. 

It  will  be  perceived,  that,  by  the  adoption  of  this  plan,  the 
letters  can  be  increased  or  diminished  in  size  at  pleasure  by 
simply  observing  how  the  various  parts  of  the  letters  cross  the 
squares.  As  soon  as  the  scholar  becomes  thoroughly  acquainted 
with   the  proportions  of  the  letters,  the   squares  may  be  dis- 


108  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

pensed  with,  and  the  work  done  on  a  single  line,  or  between 
two  horizontal  ones. 

The  best  method  for  the  learner  is  to  draw  the  letter  with 
fine,  light  lines,  using  a  hard  lead  pencil  (an  H,  for  instance), 
and,  when  the  form  is  perfected,  to  line  it  in  with  a  fine  pen. 
For  ornament,  the  right-hand  line  of  a  pair  may  be  thickened, 
which  produces  a  very  beautiful  effect ;  and,  in  addition,  a 
pattern  may  be  made  in  the  inside  that  good  taste  may  select. 

The  lowest  line  of  this  plate  shows  how  to  adapt  the  scale 
to  form  letters  oblique  to  the  right  or  left,  as  well  as  how  to 
extend  letters  in  breadth  by  widening  the  spaces  between  the 
vertical  lines. 


ITALIC   PRINT. 


By  a  reference  to  the  last  line  of  the  previous  plate,  it  will 
be  seen  that  slanting  letters  are  narrower  than  vertical,  be- 
cause the  slanting  lines  of  the  scale,  though  drawn  from  the 
same  width  apart  at  the  bottom  to  the  same  width  at  the  top, 
necessarily  approach  nearer  to  each  other  as  the  slant  is 
increased. 

Two  patterns  of  this  letter  are  given,  —  the  solid  and  the 
open  :  either  may  be  used  as  preferred.  To  execute  the  solid, 
the  letters  should  be  drawn  and  "  lined  in  "  as  directed  for  the 
Roman  ;  and  then  they  should  be  filled  in,  great  care  being 
taken  not  to  go  beyond  the  boundary-line. 

If  letters  are  drawn  on  a  very  large  scale,  the  filling-in 
should  be  done  with  a  camel's-hair  brush,  as  this  method  is 
more  rapid,  and  gives  a  more  even  surface. 


MARKING    LETTERS.  109 


EGYPTIAN   PRINTS. 

The  proportions  of  the  letters  are  the  same  as  before.  The 
distinguishing  peculiarity  of  this  style  is,  that  all  the  lines  of 
the  letters  are  the  same  thickness,  and  the  "  spurs "  arc 
omitted.  They  should  be  executed  in  the  manner  above 
stated. 

Some  exercise  of  the  judgment  is  necessary  in  all  these 
styles  to  so  place  the  letters  that  they  shall  appear  to  be 
equally  distant  apart.  To  effect  this,  it  will  be  found  neces- 
sary to  place  some  a  little  closer  than  others,  on  account  of  the 
greater  space  which  their  peculiar  profiles  would  otherwise 
leave  between  them.  Of  this  the  trained  eye  alone  can 
judge. 


MARKING   LETTERS. 

Every  housekeeper  will  appreciate  the  value  of  these.  And 
what  youth  would  not  feel  proud  to  be  able  to  relieve  his 
mother  of  this  care,  and  mark  her  linen  tastefully  for  her  ?  or 
to  execute  these  letters  gracefully  on  a  handkerchief  in  pencil 
for  his  sister  to  embroider  ?  What  lady  would  not  feel  glad 
to  possess  the  ability  to  execute  this  work  for  herself,  if  neces- 
sary ?  For  although  stencil  plates  have  nearly  superseded  this 
old-fashioned  accomplishment,  yet  still  there  are  cases  in  which 
it  is  very  useful. 

The  peculiar  art  of  writing  these  letters  is  to  make  all  the 
lines  by  downstrokes  :  the  danger  of  the  pen's  spattering  by 
catching  in  the  cloth,  as  it  is  very  apt  to  do  in  an  upstroke,  is 
thus  avoided.  In  the  A,  for  instance,  we  should  begin  with 
the  right  side,  and  make  the  heavy  line  downward  ;  next  add 
the  left  line  in  like  manner,  and  add  the  ornamental,  beginning 
by  a  similar  movement  downwards.  So  the  D  is  made  by 
three  movements. 


110  MANUAL   OF   PENMANSHIP. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  letters  upright,  and 
to  give  the  same  slant  to  the  oblique  parts. 

Whether  the  Marking  Letters  are  written  with  inclination 
to  the  left  or  right,  the  same  method  should  be  used. 

The  "Numerals  are  given,  half  of  them  inclined  each  way, 
as  the  rest  can  easily  be  adapted  to  the  style  preferred. 


SKELETON  LETTERS. 

This  is  a  very  elegant  and  useful  form  of  letter  for  inserting 
names  in  maps,  &c,  and  for  giving  variety  in  ornamental 
work. 

If  the  capitals  alone  are  used  for  a  word,  the  spurs  are 
sometimes  omitted. 


BRUSH   LETTERS. 


These  are  almost  indispensable  in  a  business  education. 
The  ability  to  execute  them  well  and  rapidly  with  a  pen  ren- 
ders the  acquisition  of  the  power  to  make  them  with  a  brush 
for  marking  packages  very  easy. 

They  are  made  entirely  by  downward  movements  like  the 
Marking  Letters,  as  already  explained,  and  increase  gradually 
in  thickness. 


OLD   ENGLISH. 


To  execute  this  beautiful  ornamental  style,  lines  should  be 
ruled  as  indicated  by  the  marks  on  the  margin  at  the  left  of 
the  letters.  As  soon  as  facility  is  acquired,  they  may  be  dis- 
pensed with. 


GERMAN   TEXT.  Ill 

The  elbow  should  be  kept  somewhat  out  from  the  body,  and 
the  pen  so  managed  by  the  lingers,  that,  when  the  points  are 
spread,  a  line  from  one  point  to  the  other  should  be  at  a  right 
angle  to  the  direction  of  the  part  of  the  letter  then  being 
made. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  joinings  of  the  oblique  and 
vertical  parts  are  always  angular,  as  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
first  line  of  m  :  this  must  be  carefully  done.  At  the  bottom  of 
the  same  line  the  joining  is  more  abrupt  :  this  is  made  either 
by  raising  the  pen  at  the  termination  of  the  vertical  line,  and 
then  adding  a  small  square  in  an  oblique  position  ;  or  by  con- 
tinuing the  line,  making  an  angular  joining  as  in  the  upper 
joint,  and  afterwards  by  a  touch  of  the  pen  giving  the  projec- 
tion. The  latter  is  the  more  rapid  method,  and  sufficiently 
effective. 

The  heavy  lines  should  always  be  drawn  first,  and  the  fine 
lines  added  afterwards,  as  in  o. 

To  form  the  horizontal  lines,  the  under  part  of  the  pen 
should  be  turned  directly  to  the  right,  and  the  holder  held  in 
the  direction  of  the  base  line. 


GERMAN   TEXT. 


This  differs  from  the  Old  English  in  the  predominance  of 
curved  instead  of  angular  joinings  ;  yet,  at  the  same  time, 
those  of  the  latter  kind  which  occur  must  not  be  neglected. 
Let  attention  be  given,  for  instance,  to  tile  difference  between 
the  upper  and  lower  joints  of  the  two  parts  of  u. 

As  in  Old  English,  the  heavy  lines  should  be  written  first, 
and  the  fine  lines  added  afterwards. 

It  will  be  well  to  compare  the  two  sets  of  Numerals,  and  to 
note  the  differences,  illustrating  the  fact  stated  in  the  first 
paragraph  as  to  the  letters. 

Some  general  remarks  will  be  added  on  these  different 
hands  in  connection  with  the  next  plate. 


112  MANUAL   OF    PENMANSHIP. 


TEXT    HANDS    FOR    LADIES. 

Tn  this  plate  the  styles  are  given  of  smaller  size,  so  as  to 
render  them  more  suitable  for  ladies.  The  instructions  already 
given  apply  equally  here  ;  and  we  shall,  therefore,  only  add  a 
few  general  remarks. 

If  it  is  desired  to  make  oblique  letters  look  of  the  same  size 
as  vertical,  they  must  be  written  of  less  vertical  height,  because 
their  slant,  making  them  longer,  gives  an  appearance  of  greater 
height  than  they  really  have. 

The  principal  difficulties  to  be  encountered  are  to  preserve 
uniformity  of  spacing,  evenness  of  height,  similarity  of  slant, 
and,  when  required,  to  make  them  all  accurately  vertical; 
also,  as  stated  under  the  Old  English,  to  so  handle  the  pen  as 
always  to  keep  the  spread  of  the  points  at  right  angles  to  the 
line  of  direction  of  the  movement. 

If  the  Numerals  are  used  with  a  word  composed  of  capitals 
only,  they  should  have  the  same  height ;  if  with  words  in 
which  small  letters  are  also  used,'  they  should  exceed  the  short 
letters  by  half  the  difference  between  their  height  and  that  of 
the  capitals. 

The  marks  at  the  left  margin  show  the  height  of  the  let- 
ters ;  those  on  the  right,  of  the  numerals.  The  short  letters 
are  about  two-thirds  the  height  of  the  capitals.  It  will  be 
found  easier  to  copy  the  exact  size  of  the  model :  this  should, 
therefore,  be  used  at  first. 

Marking  Letters  and  Old  English  are  more  compactly  writ- 
ten, Italic  and  German  Text  more  open.  Old  English  is 
generally  heavier  than  German  Text  ;  it  is  also  written  with- 
out flourishes  :  while  the  latter  admits  of  the  most  elaborate 
ornamentation;  in  which,  however,  a  severe  taste  must  preside, 
lest  the  form  of  the  letter  be  lost  in  the  strength  of  the  lines 
intended  merely  for  its  adornment. 


Plate  Vin 


ROMAN    LETTERS    ANALYZED. 


1    2 


E 


A 


7\ 


01) 


A 


T 


J± 


w 


A 


:q". 


:n 


QJJ- 


m- 


&: 


m 


'  /\ 


. 


Plate  IX , 

ITALIC    PRINT. 


JBCDEFGHI 

abed e f g  h  i 

JKLMNOPQR 
j  k  I  m  no.p-g  r 


s  t  u  v  w  x  y  z 

&  1234567890 


EGYPTIAN 


A  BC  D  E  FC  H  I 

a  b  c  d   e  f  g  h  i 

JKLMNOPQR 

j  k  I  m  n  o  p  q   r 

T  U  V  W  X  Y  Z 


sf  u  ¥  w  x  y 

&I234567890 


Plate  X 


SKELETON 


7         7~1 


/ 


a  b  c  d  e 


t 


k  I  m  n  o  p  g  r 


i 


S    I    U    V 


X 


BRUSH    LETTERS. 


€ 


:\ 


^Ycl^oCA^0 


Plate  XI 


MARKING    LETTERS. 


.V^C  ^^vY  £v^\ 


c\ 


. — — _   i    — 

A<B  C<Z>  K FGH I 

abed  e  / '  tg  h  / 

/  k  I  m  n  o  /j  q  r 

<¥  T  U  l;  UUt  ¥  X 


v  w  a* , 


j 


^\CVS\^  6 7 8 9 O cB 


Plate  XD. 


OLD    ENGLISH. 


A  B  <&  H  t  I  (!)  1  Jl 

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GERMAN    TEXT. 


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ITALIC. 


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OLD     ENGLISH. 


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1234507800 


The  best,  most  popular,  and  most  extensively  used,  of  any 

System  in  the  world. 


THE   SYSTEM   COMPRISES 

PAYSQN,    DUNTON,    AND    SGRIBNER'S    COPY-BOOKS, 

IN    THREE   DISTINCT    SERIES. 

COMMON-SCHOOL  SERIES.    BUSINESS  SERIES.   LADIES'  SERIES. 

IN  SIX  BOOKS.  IN  THREE  BOOKS.        IN  THREE  BOOKS. 

Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6.        Nos.  7,  11,  and  13.     Nos.  8,  9,  and  10. 
AND    A    BOOK     CF     ALPHABETS. 


PAYSON,  DUNTON,  k  SCRIBMS'S 

NATIONAL    WRITING-TABLETS. 

NEWLY  ENGRAVED  AND  ENLARGED. 

BIGHT    IN    NUMBER.        SIZE    24X30    INCHES.         CAPITALS   6    INCHES    IN    HEIGHT. 


These  Tablets  are  engraved  and  printed  by  an  entirely  new  process,  and  are  de- 
signed to  imitate  chalk-work  on  the  blackboard.  The  letters  are  printed  in  white,  on 
black  ground,  and  are  of  such  extended  proportions  as  to  be  distinctly  seen  across  the 
largest  schoolroom.  They  embrace  all  the  principles,  and  their  application  in  the 
formation  of  small  and  capital  letters,  rendering  them  the  most  useful  and  instructive 
Writing- Tablets  ever  published. 


PAYSON,  DUNTON,  &  SCRIBNER'S 
MANUAL    OF    PENMANSHIP    FOR    TEACHERS. 

This  is  not  a  revision  of  any  former  edition,  but  an  entirely  new  work,  expressly 
prepared  to  accompany  the  new  Copy-Books  and  Writing-Tablets,  and  contains  a  full 
statement  of  the  most  approved  methods  of  conducting  classes  in  Penmanship.  Fully 
illustrated  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  cuts,  —  five  full-page  illustrations  and  thirteen 
full  pages  of  lithographic  matter. 

For  further  information,  address 

POTTER,  AINSWORTH,   A    CO., 

New  York  and  Chicago. 


>H|# 


Primary   Schools. 

BARTHOLOMEW'S    PRIMARY    DRAWING-CARDS. 

These  Cards  are  put  up  in  ihree  sets,  —  Nos.  i,  2,  and  3,  —  of  twenty-four  exam- 
ples each.  . 

They  are  arranged  progressively,  and  present  a  great  variety  of  pleasing  and  useful 
subjects  for  practice,  including  lessons  in  printing  and  writing. 

BARTHOLOMEW'S    PRIMARY    DRAWING-SLATES. 

This  Slate  is  designed  to  accompany  the  Cards,  is  ruled  for  writing  and  musical 
exercises,  and  is  made  with  or  without  rubber  corners.     Size,  6x9. 

TEACHERS'    GUIDES. 

A  Guide  for  Teachers  has  been  prepared  to  accompany  each  set  of  Cards,  explain- 
ing their  use,  and  how  to  teach  the  examples. 


Grammar  Schools. 

BARTHOLOMEW'S    DRAWING-BOOKS. 

A  series  of  Books,  —  Nos.  t,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  —  of  six  lessons  each,  presenting  a 
carefully-prepared  Course  of  Drawing,  progressively  arranged,  and  especially  adapted 
to  the  various  grades  of  schools.  They  embrace  an  elementary  and  advanced  course 
in  Flat  Outline  Drawing,  Object  Drawing,  Perspective,  and  Shading. 

TEACHERS'    GUIDES. 

Guide  No.  1  is  divided  into  four  parts,  and  explains  all  the  examples  in  Books 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4.  Guide  No.  2  is  divided  into  two  parts,  and  explains  all  the  exam- 
ples iu  Books  Nos.  5  and  6. 


High  Schools. 


Bartholomew's  Drawing-Books,  Nos.  7,  8,  9,  IO,  11,  and  12. 
Bartholomew's  Linear  Perspective. 


Send  for  circulars,  containing  descriptions  and  recommendations,  to 

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